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Aposiopesis

Aposiopesis is derived from a Greek word that means "becoming silent." It is a rhetorical device that can be defined as a figure of speech in which the speaker or writer breaks off abruptly, and leaves the statement incomplete. It is as if the speaker is not willing to state what is present in his mind, due to being overcome by passion, excitement, or fear. In a piece of literature, it means to leave a sentence unfinished, so that the reader can determine his own meanings. Types of AposiopesisAposiopesis examples may be classified according to the following types:Emotive aposiopesis - This type of aposiopesis is used in conditions of conflict between emotional outbursts of a speaker, and an environment that does not react. Usually, the writer or speaker pauses in the middle of a sentence.Calculated aposiopesis - This type of aposiopesis is based on the conflict of missing thought and its opposing force that rejects the substance of that thought. Hence, the idea is removed that is explicitly expressed afterwards.Audience-respecting aposiopesis - It is based on the removal of thoughts which are unpleasant to the readers, or offensive to the audience.Transitio-aposiopesis - It removes the ideas from the end part of a speech in order to immediately get the audience interested in the subsequent section.Emphatic aposiopesis - It avoids the use of full utterance, to present the idea as greater and really inexpressible.Some Forms of Aposiopesis Sometimes a word is used to indicate something completely different from its literal meaning. Such as in this example, "Tis deepest winter in Lord Timon's purse; that is, one may reach deep enough, and find little" (Timon of Athens, by William Shakespeare).Sometimes a word is used to indicate something whose actual name is not used like, "A chair's arm."Sometimes a paradoxical statement is used to create illogical strained metaphors. Such as, "Take arms against a sea of troubles."Abusio is a subtype of Aposiopesis, which results from the combination of two metaphors.Examples of Aposiopesis in LiteratureExample #1: King Lear (By William Shakespeare)King Lear:"I will have revenges on you bothThat all the world shall - I will do such things -What they are yet, I know not; but they shall beThe terrors of the earth!"Shakespeare has used this technique wonderfully to show moods of his characters. Here, it is employed when King Lear gets furious against his wicked daughters. He cannot declare punishment, but he breaks down and burst into tears.Example #2: Ulysses (By James Joyce)"All quiet on Howth now. The distant hills seem. Where we. The rhododendrons. I am a fool perhaps, He gets the plums, and I the plumstones. Where I come in."In this passage, Joyce deliberately paused twice in order to create dramatic effect. The idea is left unfinished. This break also gives an impression of reluctance to continue. The unfinished thoughts are shown in bold.Example #3: Henry IV (By William Shakespeare) Hotspur:"O, I could prophesy,But that the earthy and cold hand of deathLies on my tongue. No, Percy, thou art dust,And food for —Prince Hal:"For worms, brave Percy: fare thee well, great heart!"Shakespeare has been famous for using emotional pauses, or moments of sudden silence in soliloquies. The unfinished thought in this extract is shown with a long dash (—). This is a pivotal moment in the play where a character pauses abruptly.Example #4: The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (By Mark Twain)"She looked perplexed for a moment, and then said, not fiercely, but still loud enough for the furniture to hear:'Well, I lay if I get hold of you I'll -'She did not finish, for by this time she was bending down and punching under the bed with the broom, and so she needed breath to punctuate the punches with. She resurrected nothing but the cat ..."There are two examples of aposiopesis in this excerpt. First, the writer pauses at "hold of you I'll -," and then at the end of the excerpt, "nothing but the cat." Both sentences are left incomplete.Example #5: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare)"O judgment! thou art fled to brutish beasts,And men have lost their reason. Bear with me,My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar,And I must pause till it come back to me..."Again, Shakespeare uses aposiopesis in the soliloquy spoken by Antony at Caesar's funeral ceremony. Anthony is making an emotional speech; hence, he is unable to finish his thought. This gives a perfect dramatic impact.Function of AposiopesisThe purpose of using aposiopesis is to create dramatic or comic effect. The writers or speakers use it whenever they want to express ideas that are too overwhelming to finish. Several playwrights use this technique to make dialogues seem sincere and realistic. But the most effective use of aposiopesis is seen when readers successfully figure out the missing thoughts that the writer has left unfinished.

Auditory Imagery

Auditory imagery is used to explain things, ideas and actions using sounds that appeal to our sense of hearing. It is intended to invoke up sound images in the minds of the readers. In literature, it means to use words and literary devices in a way that they make readers experience sounds when reading poetry or prose. It gives the writers a tool to make their texts vibrant and gripping with the use of the words targeting to the sense of hearing of the readers. In fact, it is deliberately inserted to evoke sensory experiences. In this sense, it makes the text appealing to the ears. Its pivotal role is to make the readers connect to the text. It is written as a phrase of two words auditory and imagery. It means that it is related to the images of sounds that we feel in our ears through words.Examples Auditory Imagery from LiteratureExample #1To Autumn by John KeatsWhere are the songs of spring? Ay, where are they?Think not of them, thou hast thy music too,—While barred clouds bloom the soft-dying day,And touch the stubble-plains with rosy hue;Then in a wailful choir the small gnats mournAmong the river sallows, borne aloftOr sinking as the light wind lives or dies;And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn;Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble softThe red-breast whistles from a garden-croft;And gathering swallows twitter in the skies.To Autumn is a phenomenal poem that relates the life's stages to the autumn season. The poem explores the phenomenon of unconventional appreciation for the fall season. It comprises the experience of the poet, his meditation and poetic imagination. However, Keats has used auditory imagery in this final paragraph of the poem where animal sounds appealing to the sense of hearing such as, "lambs loud bleet", "hedge cricket sing", "the red-breast whistles" and "gathering swallows twitter".Example #2Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening by Robert FrostMy little horse must think it queerTo stop without a farmhouse nearBetween the woods and frozen lakeThe darkest evening of the year.He gives his harness bells a shakeTo ask if there is some mistake.The only other sound's the sweepOf easy wind and downy flake.The poem captures the pull between man and nature. It is about the limitations in which human beings lead their lives, and which never allow them to get distracted from their targets in life. The wandering speaker intends to stay longer in the catchy woods, but the pull of obligations forces him to leave the woods. Therefore, he suppresses his desire and moves on. Frost has used auditory imagery in the poem to make the scenes even more realistic such as, "harness bells a shake" and sound of "easy wind and downy flake." This auditory imagery is coupled with the thematic strand of the poem giving the readers a sense of the bells shaking and wind blowing.Example #3 Macbeth by William Shakespeare, Act-II, Scene-III, Lines 1-8PORTER:"Here's a knocking indeed! If a man were porter ofhell-gate, he should have old turning the key. KnockKnock, knock, knock, knock! Who's there, i' the name ofBelzebub? Here's a farmer that hanged himself on th'expectation of plenty. Come in time! Have napkinsenow about you; here you'll sweat for't. KnockKnock, knock! Who's there, in th' other devil's name?"This extract has been taken from the third scene of the second act of the play, Macbeth by William Shakespeare. Porter speaks these lines after the murder of King Duncan. He thinks that he is going to be a guard on the gate of the hell. He is hallucinating and delivering dirty jokes to provide comic relief after the gruesome incident. To show all this, Shakespeare has used auditory imagery. The repetition of 'knock' shows how auditory imagery is effectively used to make readers perceive sounds.Example #4The Raven by Edgar Allan Poe Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary,Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore—While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door."'Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door—Only this and nothing more."The Raven is one of the excellent literary pieces. The poem comprises the fear and loneliness of a person, victim of unfortunate circumstances. The use of auditory imagery has made this text more engaging and vibrant. For example, "came a tapping", gently rapping" and "I muttered" are the words that can help readers to develop an ability to create imagery using auditory senses. This imagery helps readers construct the murky atmosphere when the raven comes to tap on the door.Example #5Splinter by Carl SandburgThe voice of the last cricketacross the first frostis one kind of good-by.It is so thin a splinter of singing.Splinter is a beautiful short poem, and it comprises the reality of life that it is continually. The "voice of cricket" symbolizes a new beginning and the last song of cricket represents its last goodbye before winter. The poet tries to show that life moves on. Therefore, people should also move on, leaving the memories behind. However, the use of auditory imagery throughout the poem has made the poem effective and captivating, as, it connects the readers with the symbolic meaning of the poem.Auditory Imagery Meaning and Functions Auditory imagery aids the reader's imagination about different sounds, types of sounds and their impacts on the readers. This imagery provides the audience with an opportunity to perceive things with their sense of hearing. It also gives them a chance to understand the fictive world and to envision the writer's imagination about sounds. Its effective use can make the text more lifelike and descriptive.

Autobiography

Autobiography is one type of biography, which tells a life story of its author, meaning it is a written record of the author's life. Rather than being written by somebody else, an autobiography comes through the person's own pen, in his own words. Some autobiographies are written in the form of a fictional tale; as novels or stories that closely mirror events from the author's real life. Such stories include Charles Dickens' David Copperfield, and J.D Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye. In writing about personal experience, one discovers himself. Therefore, it is not merely a collection of anecdotes - it is a revelation to the readers about author's self-discovery. Difference between Autobiography and MemoirIn an autobiography, the author attempts to capture important elements of his life. He not only deals with his career, and growth as a person, he also uses emotions and facts related to family life, relationships, education, travels, sexuality, and any types of inner struggles. A memoir is a record of memories, and particular events that have taken place in the author's life. In fact, it is the telling of a story or an event from his life; an account that does not tell the full record of a life.Examples of Autobiography in Literature Example #1: The Box: Tales from the Darkroom (by Gunter Grass)A noble laureate and novelist, Gunter Grass, has shown a new perspective of self-examination by mixing up his quilt of fictionalized approach in his autobiographical book, "The Box: Tales from the Darkroom." Adopting the individual point of view of each of his children, Grass narrates what his children think about him as their father and a writer. Though it is really an experimental approach, due to Grass' linguistic creativity and dexterity, it gains an enthralling momentum.Example #2: The Story of My Life (by Helen Keller)In her autobiography, The Story of My Life, Helen Keller recounts her first twenty years, beginning with the events of the childhood illness that left her deaf and blind. In her childhood, a writer sent her a letter and prophesied, "Someday you will write a great story out of your own head that will be a comfort and help to many."In this book, Keller mentions prominent historical personalities, such as Alexander Graham Bell, whom she met at the age of six, and with whom she remained friends for several years. Keller paid a visit to John Greenleaf Whittier, a famous American poet, and shared correspondence with other eminent figures, including Oliver Wendell Holmes, and Mrs. Grover Cleveland. Generally, Keller's autobiography is about overcoming great obstacles through hard work and pain.Example #3: Self Portraits: Fictions (by Frederic Tuten) In his autobiography, "Self Portraits: Fictions," Frederic Tuten has combined fringes of romantic life with reality. Like postmodern writers, such as Jorge Luis Borges, and Italo Calvino, the stories of Tuten skip between truth and imagination, time and place, without warning. He has done the same with his autobiography, where readers are eager to move through fanciful stories about train rides, circus bears, and secrets to a happy marriage; all of which give readers glimpses of the real man.Example #4: My Prizes (by Thomas Bernhard)Reliving his success of his literary career through the lens of the many prizes he has received, Thomas Bernhard presents a sarcastic commentary in his autobiography, "My Prizes." Bernhard, in fact, has taken few things too seriously. Rather, he has viewed his life as a farcical theatrical drama unfolding around him. Although Bernhard is happy with the lifestyle and prestige of being an author, his blasé attitude and scathing wit make this recollection more charmingly dissident and hilarious.Example #5: The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin (by Benjamin Franklin)"The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin" is written by one of the founding fathers of the United States. This book reveals Franklin's youth, his ideas, and his days of adversity and prosperity. He is one of the best examples living the American dream - sharing the idea that one can gain financial independence, and reach a prosperous life through hard work.FunctionThrough autobiography, authors can speak directly to their readers, and to their descendants. The function of the autobiography is to leave a legacy for its readers. By writing an autobiography, the individual shares his triumphs and defeats, and lessons learned, allowing readers to relate and feel motivated by inspirational stories. Life stories bridge the gap between peoples of differing ages and backgrounds, forging connections between old and new generations.

Claim

A statement essentially arguable, but used as a primary point to support or prove an argument is called a claim. If somebody gives an argument to support his position, it is called "making a claim." Different reasons are usually presented to prove why a certain point should be accepted as logical. A general model is given below to explain the steps followed in making a claim: Premise 1Premise 2Premise 3 ...Premise NTherefore,ConclusionIn this model, the symbol and the dots before it signify that the number of premises used for proving an argument may vary. The word "therefore" shows that the conclusion will be restating the main argument, which was being supported all the way through.With the help of a claim, one can express a particular stance on an issue that is controversial, so as to verify it as a logically sound idea. In case of a complex idea, it is always wise to start by classifying the statements you are about to put forward. Many times, the claims you make stay unnoticed because of the complex sentence structure; specifically, where the claims and their grounds are intertwined. However, a rhetorical performance, such as a speech or an essay, is typically made up of a single central claim, and most of the content contains several supporting arguments for that central claim.Types of ClaimThere are many types of claim used in literature, and all of them have their own significance. The type that we will be discussing here has great importance in writing and reading about literature because it is used frequently to build arguments. It is called evaluative claim.Evaluative claims involve the assessment or judgment of the ideas in the original piece. They have been divided further into two types: ethical judgment and aesthetic judgment. As the name implies, aesthetic judgment revolves around deciding whether or not a piece of writing fulfills artistic standards.You can easily find evaluative claim examples in book reviews. This type is about assessing an argument, or the entire essay on ethical, social, political, and philosophical grounds, and determining whether an idea is wise, good, commendable, and valid. The evaluative and interpretive claims typically consist of well-versed viewpoints. Where interpretive claims strive to explain or clarify the views communicated in and by the text, evaluative claims study the validity of those views by drawing comparison between them and the writer's own opinions.Claim Examples Interpretive ClaimsExample #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell)The great thing about Animal Farm by George Orwell is that it has presented all animals equal in the eyes of the laws framed by them. They framed Ten Commandments when they expelled Mr. Jones from Manor Farm, and this rule, "All animals are equal," became a shibboleth for them.This interpretive claim presents an argument about the exploration of the meanings, and the evidence that is given within quotation marks has been interpreted as well.Similarly, "To be or not to be..." is an evidence of the excessive thinking of Prince Hamlet in the play Hamlet, written by William Shakespeare. If a person interprets the play, he has evidence to support his claim. Papers on literary analysis are treasure troves of examples of claim.Evaluative Claims Example #2: Animal Farm (By George Orwell)As the majority of the animals were in the process of framing rules, it was understood that, although rats and several other animals were not present, whatsoever had four legs is an animal, and therefore is equal to any other animal. Hence, a general rule was framed that whatever walks on four legs is good. Later on, birds (having two wings and two legs) and other non-four-legged animals were also considered as animals. Therefore, all are equal.Now this argument clearly shows the judgment given at the end, but it is after evaluation of the whole situation presented in the novel. This is called evaluative claim.Function of ClaimThe role of claims in writing any narrative or script is essential. If used correctly, they can strengthen the argument of your standpoint. The distinction between different types of claim can be highly confusing, and sometimes complicated. For instance, a composition that claims that Vogel's play gives out a socially and ethically impolite message about abuse, can also assert that the play is aesthetically flawed. A composition that goes on developing and advocating an interpretive claim about another script shows that it at least deserves philosophical or aesthetical interpretation. On the other hand, developing an evaluative claim about a composition always remains in need of a certain level of interpretation.Hence, the dissimilarities are subtle, and can only be identified after close and profound observation; but all things considered, they are important. Thus, lest it is suggested you do otherwise, you must always leave the evaluative claims for conclusions, and make your essay an interpretive claim.

Bias

Bias is as an undue favor, support or backing extended to a person, group or race or even an argument against another. Although bias mostly exists in the cultural context, it can creep into various other forms of academic life and in literature such as sexuality, gender, nation, religion, subjects, and general life. In other words, it is a single-side or one-side illogical and non-neutral support of a viewpoint in favor against the other side. Etymologically the word 'bias' has been derived from the French word "biais" which means angle or slant. Types of BiasThere are various types of biases. It exists even in the non-literary texts. It could be propaganda, gender-related, age-related, racial discrimination, religious discrimination, marginalization and also stereotyping.Examples of Bias in Literature Example #1"None of your damned business," Al said. "Who's out in the kitchen?""The ******.""What do you mean the ******?""The ****** that cooks.""Tell him to come in.""What's the idea?""Tell him to come in."("The Killer" by Ernest Hemingway)Although Hemingway is never accused of being biased, however, his story "The Killers" has words that show the characters are biased toward the African American community. The use of the word "******" is an insult to their ethnicity, which was used to call the African American young man. Max uses this word to tell Al that he is working in the kitchen which shows his racial bias toward him.Example #2"Scout," said Atticus, "******-lover is just one of those terms that don't mean anything—like snot-nose. It's hard to explain—ignorant, trashy people use it when they think somebody's favoring Negroes over and above themselves. It's slipped into usage with some people like ourselves, when they want a common, ugly term to label somebody.""You aren't really a ******-lover, then, are you?""I certainly am. I do my best to love everybody... I'm hard put, sometimes—baby, it's never an insult to be called what somebody thinks is a bad name. It just shows you how poor that person is, it doesn't hurt you."(To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee)This is an extract from Harper Lee's novel, To Kill a Mockingbird. Scout's explanation, though seems highly unbiased and effective, does not impact Atticus. Atticus believes that these are just fancy words for drawing room discussions. This does not happen in reality. Bias exists and will continue to exist in life. The use of the word "******-lover" is too prominent to disappear in reality.Example #3Has she," asked the Doctor, with a smile, "has she been associating of late with a circle of pseudo-intellectual women-super-spiritual superior beings? My wife has been telling me about them.""That's the trouble," broke in Mr. Pontellier, "she hasn't been associating with anyone. She has abandoned her Tuesdays at home, has thrown over all her acquaintances, and goes tramping about by herself, moping in the street-cars, getting in after dark. I tell you she's peculiar. I don't like it; I feel a little worried over it."(The Awakening by Kate Chopin)The doctor is clearly against women and assumes that modern women have impacted the mind of Mrs. Pontellier. Mr. Pontellier is describing how his wife, Edna Pontellier has acted in a different way than a woman having children and a husband should behave. However, the doctor's views reflect his gender bias. Leonce has also verified these comments of a doctor. This shows that both the men are biased against the only female in the story, Edna Pontellier.Example #4Mark you this, Bassanio,The devil can cite Scripture for his purpose.An evil soul producing holy witnessIs like a villain with a smiling cheek,A goodly apple rotten at the heart.(The Merchant of Venice, Act-I, Scene-III by William Shakespeare)Antonio, a character in the Merchant of Venice speaks these words about Shylock, the Jew. He is referring to him in highly scornful terms to demonstrate that the Jew is an evil incarnate. These lines are important as Antonio and Bassanio display bias against Shylock or the entire Jewish community. He is being referred to as a wicked person due to his profession and as if he is on the devil's side.Example #5IAGO"Even now, now, very now, an old black ramIs tupping your white ewe. Arise, arise!Awake the snorting citizens with the bell,Or else the devil will make a grandsire of you.Arise, I say!"(Othello Act-1. Scene-I, by William Shakespeare)These lines from Othello shows how Iago uses bias to make Barbantio and other senators turn against Othello. He terms him an "old black ram" which is a racist term. He is using a racial slur against Othello to make people hate him.Bias Meaning and FunctionBias in literature is used to implicitly send a message to the readers about specific prejudice against a community, faith, sect or race. It is used to make people aware of certain defects in people. It is also used to make people think in a different way than they usually do. In fact, bias is used to create prejudice, leading to hatred and war-mongering. It is also called "othering" of the people different from us.

Balanced Sentence

A balanced sentence is made up of two segments which are equal, not only in length, but also in grammatical structure and meaning. It could be a periodic or cumulative sentence. A reader finds both parts equal when he goes through such a sentence. For instance, Abraham Lincoln, in his Gettysburg speech, "... government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth," gives us an example of parallel forms. In writing, both parts are clearly parallel forms, and they appear grammatically parallel. If there are multiple parts of a balanced sentence, then they are separated by a semicolon or adjoining words, such as "but," "or," "and," etc. Since balanced sentences always have parallelism, writers need to use parallelism with similar grammatical forms, structure, and word order.Use of Balanced Sentence in Presidential Address"While the Inaugural Address was being delivered from this place, devoted altogether to saving the Union without war, insurgent agents were in the city seeking to destroy it without war, seeking to dissolve the Union and divide effects by negotiation" and "All dreaded it, all sought to avert it." [Abraham Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address, 1865]Lincoln has used balanced syntax in this address, with a combination of short and long sentences, which evokes an idea of a united and balanced nation. This difference in sentence lengths represents differences between North and South, and by combining them he emphasizes on the unity of the divided nation.Use of Balanced Sentence in Advertising "Light is faster, but we are safer." (Global Jet Airlines' advertising slogan)"Buy a bucket of chicken and have a barrel of fun." (KFC's advertising slogan)Examples of Balanced Sentence in LiteratureExample #1: Coon Tree (by E.B. White)"On days when warmth is the most important need of the human heart, the kitchen is the place you can find it; it dries the wet socks, it cools the hot little brain."This is a good example of a balanced sentence. The last two clauses are parallel in this sentence, having the same length and the same grammatical structure. The two identical pieces are giving rhythmical flow to the lines.Example #2: In Cold Blood (by Truman Capote)"Like the waters of the river, like the motorists on the highway, and like the yellow trains streaking down the Santa Fe tracks, drama, in the shape of exceptional happenings, had never stopped there."This balanced sentence is also a periodic sentence, as the main action happens at the end. There are parallel grammatical structures in each part of this sentence which makes its rhythmic and clear to understand.Example #3: The Life of Samuel Johnson (by James Boswell) "Every man has a right to utter what he thinks truth, and every other man has a right to knock him down for it."This is another very simple and clear example of a balanced sentence. Both clauses have the same length and word order, emphasizing the idea of truth and adding pleasing rhythm.Example #4: Pride and Prejudice (by Jane Austen)"... and though the mother was found to be intolerable, and the younger sisters noted worth speaking to, a wish of being better acquainted with them was expressed towards the two eldest."Austen is famous for using balanced sentences to illustrate contrast between things, people, or duality of situations. In these lines, she does the same and compares Bennet sisters and their mother.Example #5: The Scarlet Letter (by Nathaniel Hawthorne)"Her needle-work was seen on the ruff of the Governor; military men wore it on their scarfs, and the minister on his band; it decked the baby's little cap; it was shut up, to be mildewed and moulder away, in the coffins of the dead."By using a series of parallel clauses, narrator compares members of government, military, and religion to rotting dead and infants. This balanced syntax makes a commentary on the corruption and blindness of governing bodies.Function of Balanced SentenceA balanced sentence gives rhythmical flow to the text. It draws attention of the readers to the sentence and makes it stand out among the rest. Writers use balanced sentences to emphasize particular ideas to make meanings clear, as well as to create pleasing rhythms. In fact, it puts a spotlight on a series of clauses or a sentence. Hence, it helps the writers to make their work stand out from the rest of the text. On the other hand, public speakers, singers, and advertising agencies use it, because its rhythmical qualities have a good impact on the audience.

Biography

A biography is simply an account or detailed description about the life of a person. It entails basic facts, such as childhood, education, career, relationships, family, and death. Biography is a literary genre that portrays the experiences of all these events occurring in the life of a person, mostly in a chronological order. Unlike a resume or profile, a biography provides a life story of a subject, highlighting different aspects of his of her life. A person who writes biographies, is called as a "biographer." Types of BiographyThere are three types of biography:AutobiographyAn autobiography tells the story of a person's own life. While that person writes his own account, he or she may take guidance from a ghostwriter or collaborator.BiographyA biography narrates the life story of a person, as written by another person or writer. It is further divided into five categories:Popular biographyHistorical biographyLiterary biographyReference biographyFictional biographyMemoir This is a more focused writing than an autobiography or a biography. In a memoir, a writer narrates the details of a particular event or situation that occurred in his or her lifetime.Examples of Biography in Literature Example #1: Shakespeare: A Life (By Park Honan)This biography is the most accurate, up-to-date, and complete narrative ever written about the life of William Shakespeare. Park Honan has used rich and fresh information about Shakespeare in order to change the perceptions of readers for the playwright, and his role as a poet and actor.This book completely differs from other biographies that imagine different roles for him, commenting on his sexual relationships and colorful intrigues. Though detailed psychological theories and imaginative reforms about the famous playwright could be amusing, in fact, they damage the credibility of the sources. Therefore, many attempts have been made to know about Shakespeare, but this one is a unique example.Example #2: Arthur Miller: Attention Must Be Paid (By James Campbell)This biography is written in the form of a drama, presented in just two acts. In the first act, the author shows the famous dramatist, Arthur Miller, in his early success, having the love of the most beloved woman in the world, and resisting tyranny. However, in the second act of this biography, the author shows that the hero was badly assaulted and ridiculed by a rowdy mob called critics, who are expelled from the conventional theater. He ends his book with rhetorical details related to a revitalization in the fortunes of the playwright.Example #3: The Life of Samuel Johnson (By James Boswell)This biography is frequently hyped as a perfect example of modern biography, and all-time best example in the English language. This masterpiece of James Boswell has covered the whole life of the ubiquitous literary writer Samuel Johnson, with whom Boswell was well-acquainted. The unique quality of this book is that it shows Johnson as a walking intellectual amongst us.Example #4: The Bronte Myth (By Lucasta Miller)Emily, Anne, and Charlotte Bronte were very famous and eminent writers in the history of English literature. Many rumors and gossips were associated with them when they reached the peaks of their careers and received great approval for writing the most admired novels of the nineteenth century. In their biography, Lucasta Miller chunks the myths related to these young enigmatic women. This is a fine example of a biography.Example #5: Why this World: A Biography of Clarice Lispector (By Benjamin Moser)After perusing his own private manuscripts and writings, this modernist writer, Benjamin Moser, has explored the mystique surrounding Brazilian writer Clarice Lispector. This is one of Moser's biographies, which comes a little closer to finding her true nuances. All those readers who are going to read her myriad of works for the first time would find this biography interesting, and her life as beautiful and tragic, yet riveting.Function of BiographyThe function of writing biographies is to provide details regarding the life of a person or a thing in an entertaining but informative manner. By the end of a biography, readers feel like they are well-acquainted with the subject. Biographies are often non-fictional, but many biographers also use novel-like format, because a story line would be more entertaining with the inclusion of strong exposition, rising conflict, and then climax. Besides, the most inspirational life stories could motivate and put confidence into the readers.

Cliffhanger

A cliffhanger is a type of narrative or a plot device in which the end is curiously abrupt, so that the main characters are left in a difficult situation, without offering any resolution of conflicts. As a result of a sudden end, suspense is created at the very end of the novel, leaving the readers in such a state that they could not help but to ask, "What will happen next?" This type of end is common to serially-published novels, which end at a dramatic or suspenseful moment. The cliffhanger plot device ensures readers will buy the next installment, in order to read and find out what happens.Cliffhanger Examples in Everyday LifeCliffhanger examples in television series are abundant. Episodes of TV series end during moments of high drama in order to ensure the following of viewers in the next episode. One famous example is the TV series Lost, which ended almost every episode with a cliffhanger. Commercial breaks compel writers to include a cliffhangers in the plot before each break to maintain suspense, and ensure viewership following the break.Examples of Cliffhanger in Literature Example #1: One Thousand and One Nights (By Muhsin Mahdi)Cliffhanger has its roots in ancient oriental literature. One example is in the collection of stories known as One Thousand and One Nights, in which the king Shehreyar orders his queen Scheherzade to be hanged. She devises a plan to tell a story to the king every night, ending that story with a cliffhanger. The king postponed the order of execution every day to hear the rest of the story.Example #2: A Pair of Blue Eyes (By Thomas Hardy)The term "cliffhanger" seems to get its name from the Thomas Hardy's novel A Pair of Blue Eyes, which was published in a magazine in a series format, with a chapter published every month. At the end of one of the episodes, Hardy left his main character, Henry Knight, hanging onto a cliff, staring at the stony eyes of a fossil embedded in rocks below. Since then, every abrupt end has been termed a "cliffhanger."Example #3: The Tempest (By William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare could not afford for his audience to be bored, and for this reason he uses a cliffhanger in Act 1, Scene 1 of his play The Tempest. The scene of a storm and shipwreck is depicted in a most vivid manner, but the audience is unsure if anybody on the ship has survived. The device is employed with the purpose that the audience will return to see the next act. Finally, the fate of the crew on board is revealed in Act 2, Scene 1 and the focus of the audience is ensured by that time.Example #4: Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone (By J. K. Rowling)J. K. Rowling, in her famous work Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone, employs many cliffhangers. To cite an example from Chapter 3, " Letters from No One":"One minute to go and he'd be eleven. Thirty seconds...twenty...ten...nine - may be he'd wake Dudley up, just to annoy him - three...two...one...BOOM!The whole shack shivered and Harry sat bolt upright, staring at the door. Someone was outside, knocking to come in."Obviously, you will turn the page and start reading the next chapter to know who was outside knocking at the door. The obvious reason for such endings is to create interest in the readers, so they will move on to the next chapter without the slightest hesitation.Function of CliffhangerBy nature, man is a curious creature. Cliffhangers in any form of literature appeal to our curiosity. The main purpose of employing this device is to maintain suspense in the plot in order to ensure the interest and focus of the readers. It acts as bait to lead the readers from one part of the text to another with more interest than before.Cliffhangers, undoubtedly, are enjoyable to read at the end of the chapters of novels. However, it can be very frustrating at the very end of a novel, as it leaves readers discontented after all the effort they put in to read the novel.In TV series, where the cliffhanger tool is perhaps most popular, they make use of this device to great effect. The viewers' favorite characters are left in a lurch, and the viewers yearn to know more about their fate. As a result, viewers are likely to want to keep up in the next episode.

Atmosphere

A literary technique, atmosphere is a type of feeling that readers get from a narrative, based on details such as setting, background, objects, and foreshadowing. A mood can serve as a vehicle for establishing atmosphere. In literary works, atmosphere refers to emotions or feelings an author conveys to his readers through description of objects and settings, such as in J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter tales, in which she spins a whimsical and enthralling atmosphere. Bear in mind that atmosphere may vary throughout a literary piece. Difference Between Atmosphere and MoodMany people use both terms interchangeably, as there is no concrete difference between them. However, in literature we find a mild difference. This is because atmosphere is a broader term, and may be set by a certain venue, such as a theater.However, mood is a more specific and narrow term, concerning emotions of a certain individual or group of individuals, and it does not incorporate the emotions or feelings radiating throughout a venue. Simply, mood is about internal feelings, while atmosphere exists at a particular spot. Besides, a mood contributes for building up the entire atmosphere of a narrative.Examples of Atmosphere in Literature Example #1: An Unspoken Hunger (By Terry Tempest Williams)"It is an unspoken hunger we deflect with knives - one avocado between us, cut neatly in half, twisted then separated from the large wooden pit. With the green fleshy boats in hand, we slice vertical strips from one end to the other. Vegetable planks. We smother the avocado with salsa, hot chiles at noon in the desert. We look at each other and smile, eating avocados with sharp silver blades, risking the blood of our tongues repeatedly."Here, Williams creates a dangerous atmosphere, where she presents the hazards of knives and avocados. In fact, when an author tries to establish atmosphere by using objects, these objects represent unspoken reality. Besides, appearance of two characters also adds to a sexually charged atmosphere.Example #2: The Vision (By Dean Koontz)"The woman raised her hands and stared at them; stared through them.Her voice was soft but tense. 'Blood on his hands.' Her own hands were clean and pale."When we read these lines, they immediately bring to our mind an emotional response, and draw our attention. This is exactly what atmosphere does in a literary work.Example #3: The Raven (By Edgar Allen Poe) "Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary,Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore -While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door -"Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door -Only this and nothing more."In this excerpt, the experience of readers is suspenseful and exciting, as they anticipate horror due to feelings within the narrative. As we see, this character hears tapping on the door and, when opens it, he finds nobody there, only darkness; making the atmosphere fearful and tense.Example #4: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens)Charles Dickens, in A Tale of Two Cities, creates an important atmosphere whenever a major event occurs in a plot. For instance, we see a ghostly mood of a messenger's entrance in Dover mail, which indicates things of the future. Then, Dickens builds up an atmosphere through the actions of his characters in the room of Dr. Manetas.Within this, the author gives attributes to these places with different concepts and ideas. For instance, when Jerry goes to find Dover mail, to convey a message to Mr. Lorry, Dickens creates a gloomy and mysterious atmosphere, alluding to the darker end. Another type of atmosphere we see in the courtroom towards the end. During the scene, you would notice the public is searching and buzzing for victim after victim. Thus Dickens links the atmosphere of this place with death.Function of AtmosphereThe purpose of establishing atmosphere is to create emotional effect. It makes a literary work lively, fascinating, and interesting by keeping the audience more engaged. It appeals to the readers' senses by making the story more real, allowing them to comprehend the idea easily. Since atmosphere makes the audience feel in an indirect way, writers can convey harsh feelings with less severity. Writers control the impact of prevailing atmosphere by changing the description of settings and objects.

Antimetabole

Antimetabole is derived from a Greek word which means "turning about." It is a literary term or device that involves repeating a phrase in reverse order. For example: "You like it; it likes you.""Fair is foul and foul is fair."Chiasmus and antimetabole are usually expected to be overlapped in usage, and this overlap is also often used as a synonym for epanados (the repeating of a phrase or sentence in reverse order) in modern day books. However, the writer would make them distinct through his use.Famous Antimetabole ExamplesSince the time of Socrates, we see the use of antimetabole. Some of them are:"Eat to live, not live to eat." - Socrates"I go where I please, and I please where I go." - Attributed to Duke Nukem"In America, you can always find a party. In Soviet Russia, Party always finds you!" - Yakov Smirnoff"If you fail to plan, you plan to fail.""Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." - John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address, January 20, 1961."He who questions training only trains himself at asking questions." - The Sphinx, Mystery Men (1999)"The great object of [Hamlet's] life is defeated by continually resolving to do, yet doing nothing but resolve." - Samuel Taylor Coleridge on Shakespeare's Hamlet"We do what we like and we like what we do." - Andrew W.K., "Party Hard""We didn't land on Plymouth Rock. Plymouth Rock landed on us." Malcolm X, "Malcolm X""If you can't be with the one you love, love the one you're with." - Billy Preston"You stood up for America, now America must stand up for you." - Barack Obama, December 14, 2011.Difference Between Chiasmus and Antimetabole Antimetabole and chiasmus are very closely related, and some experts even use them interchangeably. However, both the terms still exist to refer to two distinct literary devices. According to scholars, when a sentence is repeated by reversing it, so as to convey an idea or stress a point, it is called chiasmus. Antimetabole is not very much different from chiasmus, only that in an antimetabole the words and grammatical structure is also reversed, because just reversing the meaning is not enough. So in the light of these facts, it can be deduced that all the antimetaboles are chiasmus, but not all instances of chiasmus are antimetaboles.A chiasmus is a sentence repeated inversely. The only condition of a chiasmic sentence is that the two clauses in the phrase are opposite in meaning. For example, the popular saying by Havelock Ellis: "Charm is a woman's strength, strength is a man's charm," the sentence is an example of chiasmus, but is not an antimetabole. This is because the two clauses have opposite meanings, but the words and the grammatical makeup are dissimilar.In an antimetabole the word order in a sentence is reversed to contrast the meanings. One very good example is Mae West's catchphrase, "It's not the men in my life; it's the life in my men." As you can see, in this sentence the words, rhythm, and grammatical structure in the second phrase are exactly similar to the first one, but the meaning is opposite. Many experts refer to antimetabole as a subtype of chiasmus.Functions and Effectiveness of AntimetaboleFor antimetabole to be effective, it does not only have to be grammatically correct, but should also be logical. People, after studying literature for a while, start thinking that they can churn out antimetaboles with a snap of a finger. They fail to understand the fact that a sentence cannot be called an antimetabole if it is not based on a logical theme.Antimetaboles are popular and effective solely because they appeal to reason and are easy to remember. If the first half is relatable, then the reader or listener will automatically make sense of the second half. For example: "It is not about the years in your life, but about the life in your years." A sentence like this can be called an antimetabole because it is appealing, correct (logically and grammatically) and has a message to convey to the readers.

Bildungsroman

Bildungsroman is a special kind of novel that focuses on the psychological and moral growth of its main character, from his or her youth to adulthood. A bildungsroman is a story of the growing up of a sensitive person, who looks for answers to his questions through different experiences. Generally, such a novel starts with a loss or a tragedy that disturbs the main character emotionally. He or she leaves on a journey to fill that vacuum.During the journey, the protagonist gains maturity, gradually and with difficulty. Usually, the plot depicts a conflict between the protagonist and the values of society. Finally, he or she accepts those values, and they are accepted by society, ending the dissatisfaction. Such a type of novel is also known as a "coming-of-age" novel.Examples of Bildungsroman in LiteratureThere are numerous examples of bildungsroman or coming-of-age novels in English literature. Let us briefly analyze a few:Example #1: The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling (By Henry Fielding)This is among the famous bildungsroman examples written in a comic mode. Squire Allworthy, a wealthy landowner, discovers a foundling, Tom Jones, on his property. Tom Jones grows up into a lusty but honest young man, in contrast to his half-brother Blifil, who was a personification of hypocrisy.Tom falls in love with Sophia Western, but the relationship is opposed by her father, on the basis that Tom is a "bastard." After this loss, Tom undergoes many experiences, and finally it is revealed that Tom is the son of Mr. Summer, a friend of Allworthy, and Mrs. Waters, who is Allworthy's sister. Therefore, society accepts him when it is established that he is not a bastard.Example #2: David Copperfield (By Charles Dickens)This can be termed as a bildungsroman, as it traces the life of David Copperfield from his childhood to maturity. His mother re-marries a man named Edward Murdstone, who sends David to work for a wine merchant in London. He then runs away to finally reach his eccentric aunt Betsey Trotwood, who agrees to raise him, and calls him "Trot." We see a change in David's "undisciplined heart," as after Dora's death, he does some soul-searching, and chooses sensible Agnes - a woman who had always loved him - as his wife.Example #3: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce) This is a coming-of-age story of the character Stephen Dedalus. The story starts with Stephen in a boarding school at the age of sixteen. One day he goes back to his room, falls sick due to the unbearable load of his sins, and decides to change himself. He goes to the church for a confession, and the cleric is exceptionally kind. Thus, Stephen discovers another path in his life, as he becomes a cleric. Later in the novel, Stephen's life takes another turn. He realizes that he cannot waste his life as a cleric. He needs to live in society and be innovative like an artist.Example #4: Never Let Me Go (By Kazuo Ishiguro)This is a recent example of a bildungsroman novel. The novel is divided into three acts: childhood, adult and donor. It traces the life of Kathy, the protagonist and narrator of the novel. She is a "donor" who is harvested for organs to be donated to gravely ill patients.We see Kathy as free-spirited, kind, and loving in her childhood. As a young woman she shows less emotion looking back at her past. At the end of the novel, she is a mature woman, and accepts the lives of herself and her friends.Function of Bildungsroman The bildungsroman novel depicts and criticizes those vices of society which cause the protagonist to suffer. The novel conveys a sense of realism, because the protagonist is a common sensitive person who is affected by the loss that they suffer, and this loss, ultimately, changes the course of their life.In addition, the psychological and moral growth of the protagonist gives us a deep insight into the character, and also helps to understand the conflict in his or her life. As a result, we can identify ourselves with the coming-of-age characters, and feel emotionally attached and interested as we see them pass different stages of their lives, until they finally change for the good.

Aside

Normally playwrights use characters' dialogues to tell their stories, but often it becomes difficult for them to express what their characters are thinking. Hence, they use a typical dramatic device, called "aside," to solve this problem. An aside is a short comment or speech that a character delivers directly to the audience, or to himself, while other actors on the stage appear not to hear. Only the audience knows that the character has said something to them. In essence, through an aside, a character comments on what happens in the play. Simply, we can define aside as a short commentary that reveals private opinions and reactions of the character. However, it refers to the major conflict in a play, though it may not involve his personal conflict.Difference Between Aside and SoliloquyBoth asides and soliloquies are dramatic devices; they have similarities and differences. The similarity between them is that a single character speaks directly to himself, or to the audience, and no other character can hear his comments. The difference between them is that an aside is a shorter comment, while a soliloquy is a longer speech. Another difference is that an aside reveals hidden secrets or judgments, whereas the soliloquy reveals motives, inner thoughts, or internal struggles going on in the mind of the character.Examples of Aside in Literature Aside became a popular dramatic technique during the Elizabethan era, when structure and arrangement of the theaters themselves were changing. The structure of stages was transformed into a three-sided shape that allowed spectators to come closer to actors than ever before. Hence, this friendly setting made asides more realistic. Following are a few examples of aside from literature:Example #1: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare)"Time thou anticipat'st my dread exploits.The flighty purpose never is o'ertookUnless the deed go with it. From this momentThe very firstlings of my heart shall beThe firstlings of my hand."Here, readers learn that the leading character, Macbeth, feels regret to launch an attack on MacDuff. However, his speech announces that Macbeth would attack MacDuff's castle and kill his family. This speech reveals Macbeth has lost his moral values. First, he struggles with the decision to kill the king, but now he does not feel hesitation to murder the king's whole family. This aside makes it clear that he has transformed into a violent and ambitious man.Example #2: Crucible (By Arthur Miller)Arthur Miller, in his play Crucible, uses aside through the last words of Elizabeth towards the conclusion of the play, when she says:"He have his goodness now. God forbid I take it from him."Elizabeth forgives her husband of his adultery, and John - after making many mistakes - makes the right decision and confesses his sin. This good moral decision restores his goodness. Therefore, when Reverend Hale asks Elizabeth to convince her husband not to give up his life, she makes an aside, saying that she cannot do this when he finally realizes that he has his goodness.Example #3: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) Another example of aside occurs in Shakespeare's Hamlet. In this play, after the death of the King of Denmark, the king's brother Claudius takes the charge of the throne, rather than Prince Hamlet. Moreover, Claudius marries the king's wife. In the first act of this play, when Claudius talks to Hamlet, by calling him his son and nephew, Hamlet makes an aside by saying:"A little more than kin, and less than kind."Example #4: Cherry Orchard (By Anton Chekhov)Yasha: (Aside.)"Lyubov Andreyevna, could I have a word? I was wondering if Madame would be going back to Paris ... the food's uneatable, that old man wandering about muttering to himself ..."In this example, Yasha makes an aside to express that he wants to go back to Paris with Mrs. Ranavesky, as there are no standards living in her estate, and also he is not satisfied with the behavior of its residents.Function of AsideAside gives special information to the audience about the plot and other characters onstage. It is like a window into the thoughts of characters. Since aside is a comment about the characters without bringing into their knowledge, it gives better understanding to the audience about the essence of the matter.Asides also create an enjoyable experience for the audience, as a character talks to them directly, drawing them closer to his or her actions and thoughts. They can enter into the true thoughts and feelings of the characters. However, in comedies asides are delightful, and as a result, playwrights could imagine how the audience enjoys their work.

Appositive

When a noun or word is followed by another noun or phrase that renames or identifies it, this is called appositive. This is a literary device that appears before or after a noun or noun phrase. It is always used with a comma. Simply, we can define it as a noun phrase or a noun that defines or explains another noun, which it follows. In this grammatical structure, writers place elements like noun phrases side-by-side, where one element serves to define the other, and one is in apposition to the other. For instance:"We were waiting outside the condemned cells, a row of sheds fronted with double bars, like small animal cages." (A Hanging, by George Orwell)In this line, "the condemned cells" is a noun phrase, while "a row of sheds" is an appositive that explains this noun phrase.Types of AppositiveRestrictive AppositiveRestrictive appositive gives essential information to identify the phrase or noun in apposition. It clarifies the meaning of a phrase but, if the appositive is removed, the meaning of the entire sentence changes. Commas are not necessarily used in this type of appositive, such as in, "John's friend, Michael, likes chocolates." Here, John has others friends, but the statement is restricted to only Michael.Non-Restrictive AppositiveNon-restrictive appositive gives non-essential or extra information, which is not important to identify the phrase or noun in apposition. This type of appositive is often used with commas, for example, "John, my friend, likes to eat chocolates." Here, my friend is a non-restrictive appositive, because it is not necessary for identifying John.Examples of Appositive in Literature Example #1: A Christmas Memory (By Truman Capote) "Christmas Eve afternoon we scrape together a nickel and go to the butcher's to buy Queenie's traditional gift, a good gnawable beef bone."In the above excerpt, a restrictive appositive is clarifying and describing a noun "traditional gift." Here, this literary device has appeared after the noun, specifying the type of gift.Example #2: Bronx Primitive (By Kate Simon)"Though her cheeks were high-colored and her teeth strong and yellow, she looked like a mechanical woman, a machine with flashing, glassy circles for eyes."In this example, the noun "mechanical woman" is defined and identified by a long noun phrase, a restrictive appositive, "flashing, gassy circles for eyes," which serves as a useful device in this excerpt, and brings variety to the sentence, enhancing its meaning.Example #3: The Pride of the Yankees (By Gary Cooper as Lou Gehrig)"I have had the great honor to have played with these great veteran ballplayers on my left -Murderers Row, our championship team of 1927. I have had the further honor of living with and playing with these men on my right — the Bronx Bombers, the Yankees of today.Gehrig identifies a noun, "ballplayers," by using the restrictive appositive "murderers row," and he adds a noun "championship team." These two appositives are used with commas and add meaning and significance to the sentence.Example #4: Inside Cape Town (By Joshua Hammer)"The Koeberg Nuclear Power Station, Africa's only nuclear power plant, was inaugurated in 1984 by the apartheid regime and is the major source of electricity for the Western Cape's 4.5 million population."In the above extract, Hammer has used an appositive immediately after the noun phrase "Nuclear power station," which adds information to the sentence. This presents an example of non-restrictive appositive which, if removed, does not change the meaning of the sentence.Example #5: Beauty: When the Other Dancer is the Self (By Alice Walker)"My father, a fat, funny man with beautiful eyes and a subversive wit, is trying to decide which of his eight children he will take with him to the county fair."This is another good example of non-restrictive appositive, in which the noun "father" does not need extra information, but the author has used a long noun phrase, "a fat, funny man ... and a subversive wit," to describe it.Function of AppositiveThe function of appositive in literary works is to provide information, which is either essential or additional. It also gives meanings to different sentences in literary texts, and helps in identifying other nouns. An appositive noun also defines, explains, and clarifies the meaning of a sentence. It is helpful to combine sentences to avoid too many choppy and short sentences. In addition, an appositive phrase gives variety to a literary work by using sentences of varied lengths, allowing the writers to use interesting details with smooth flow of the reading experience.

Lyric Poem

A lyric poem or lyrical poem in literature is a poem in which the poet either expresses his feelings and emotions. The poet also presents a character in the first person to express his emotions. It is a combination of lyric and poetry where a piece of poetry is written as a lyric. Lyric has been derived from lyre, a musical stringed instrument used during the Grecian period to accompany the poetry sung during different festivities. Aristotle used the world lyric or lyrical with reference poetry to categorize it into three distinct types. A lyric poem is often short and non-narrative but keeps some elements of melody. Although odes and elegies are other categories, they, too, are placed under the lyric poetry. Lyric poems can follow any metrical pattern, be it iambic, trochaic, or pyrrhic.Lyric Poem Examples from LiterartureExamples #1"O, Wert Thou in the Cauld Blast" by Robert BurnsO, WERT thou in the cauld blast⁠On yonder lea, on yonder lea,My plaidie to the angry airt,⁠I'd shelter thee, I'd shelter thee.Or did Misfortune's bitter storms⁠Around thee blaw, around thee blaw,Thy bield should be my bosom,⁠To share it a', to share it a'.These are the first two stanzas of a famous lyric poem by Robert Burns. The very first line expresses deep emotions of the poet about his beloved. The musical quality of the poem turns it into lyrics which can be sung with some instruments. The expression of feelings in the perfect metrical pattern with love as the subject matter makes it one of the best lyric poems.Examples #2"The Pains of Sleep" by Samuel Taylor Coleridge"ERE on my bed my limbs I lay,It hath not been my use to prayWith moving lips or bended knees;But silently, by slow degrees,My spirit I to Love compose,In humble trust mine eye-lids close,With reverential resignation,No wish conceived, no thought exprest,Only a sense of supplication."These are the first few lines of the famous lyric poem of Samuel Taylor Coleridge. This poem, as the title suggests, is about the pains that the poet has to go through when sleeping. He explains how he loves to go to sleep as his eyes become quite humble before sleeping. These first lines have a perfect metrical pattern and rhyme scheme to make it an excellent lyric poem.Examples #3 "Hymn of Pan" by Shelley"FROM the forests and highlands⁠We come, we come;From the river-girt islands,⁠Where loud waves are dumb⁠Listening to my sweet pipings.The wind in the reeds and the rushes,⁠The bees on the bells of thyme,The birds on the myrtle bushes,⁠The cicale above in the lime,And the lizards below in the grass,Were as silent as ever old Tmolus was,⁠Listening to my sweet pipings."This simple introduction of the forest, breeze, and hunger display the lyrical quality of the poem. The repetitive and elliptical structure of these two stanzas points out that the hymn has been actually composed for singing. Therefore, it is also considered one of the best lyric poems having perfect rhyme scheme suitable for singing.Examples #4 "A Dream of Fair Women" Lord Tennyson"I READ, before my eyelids dropt their shade,⁠"The Legend of Good Women," long agoSung by the morning star of song, who made⁠His music heard below;Dan Chaucer, the first warbler, whose sweet breath⁠Preluded those melodious bursts that fillThe spacious times of great Elizabeth⁠With sounds that echo still."This is an extract from the lyric poem of Lord Tennyson "A Dream of Fair Women." This poem is a perfect lyric poem as it shows almost all its features, as it has the musicality due to its rhyming pattern and meter. Its main theme is also the expression of the poet's emotions. Therefore, it makes a good lyric poem.Example #5"Go, Lovely Rose" by Edmund Waller"Go, lovely Rose-Tell her that wastes her time and me,That now she knows,When I resemble her to thee,How sweet and fair she seems to be.Tell her that's young,And shuns to have her graces spied,That hadst thou sprungIn deserts where no men abide,Thou must have uncommended died."Edmund Waller speaks to the rose flower he is going to send to his beloved to convey his emotions. The rhyming pattern shows that this lyric poem could be sung on occasion with the accompaniment of some instrument. It also shows the best expression of his personal feelings for his beloved.Lyric Poem Meaning and Function A lyric poem provides the poet with space to express his personal feelings he cannot show otherwise in prose or any other form. He is free to address anything and write in a way that it could be sung. It also provides the poet an opportunity to show how he can turn words into emotional outbursts that could be turned into music. The poet can freely compose, repeat and use rhyming patterns for music.

Spondee

A metrical foot, spondee is a beat in a poetic line that consists of two accented syllables (stressed/stressed) or DUM-DUM stress pattern. Spondee is a poetic device that is not as common as other metrical feet, like iamb and trochee. We rarely find poems written in spondee alone; however, poets use spondee by combining other metrical feet. For instance, the word "faithful" contains spondee. If you say this word loudly, you would notice that you are putting an equal amount of stress on both syllables "faith" and "ful." Features of SpondeeIt is one of the most commonly used five metrical feet, including iambic meter, trochaic meter, dactylic meter, and anapestic meter. It rarely occurs in poetic forms. Also, usually poets do not use spondaic meter in the entire poem, as it does not add a basis to the metrical line. Therefore, they combine it with other metrical patterns - a combination which changes the pace of the poem. Since it is an irregular foot, it does not add high structure or rhythm to a verse.Opposite to Pyrrhic Foot Spondee contains two long or accented syllables (stressed/stressed), while pyrrhic meter contains two short or unaccented syllables (unstressed/unstressed) in a quantitative meter, which is opposite to spondee. For example, see the pyrrhic syllables in bold in this line: "To a green thought in a green shade." We generally find pyrrhic meter in classical Greek poetry, whereas we find spondee in the modern prosodic system.Examples of Spondee in LiteratureExample #1: The Song of Hiawatha (By Henry Wordsworth Longfellow)"By the shore of Gitche Gumee,By the shining Big-Sea-Water,At the doorway of his wigwam,...All the air was full of freshness,All the earth was bright and joyous,And before him, through the sunshine,Westward toward the neighboring forest...Burning, singing in the sunshine."Longfellow has written this poem in tetrameter, which means the lines of this poem contains four beats, in which three beats are of spondee and one of trochee. Here, the spondaic feet are underlined.Example #2: Break, Break, Break (By Alfred Lord Tennyson)"Break, break, break,On thy cold grey stones, O Sea!And I would that my tongue could utterThe thoughts that arise in me."This is the most popular example of spondaic meter. Look at the first two lines of this stanza. Three consecutive spondaic meters are underlined. Read out these lines aloud, and you will notice both syllables are using equal stress pattern.Example #3: Othello (By William Shakespeare) "If I do prove her haggard,Though that her jesses were my dear heart-strings ..."This is a very good example of spondaic meter, where we can see double spondee in the first line "If I," and "do prove," and in the second line "heart-strings."Example #4: Pied Beauty (By Gerard Manley Hopkins)"Landscape plotted and pieced—fold, fallow, and plough;And all trades, their gear and tackle and trim ...He fathers-forth whose beauty is past change ..."Hopkins uses heavy spondaic meter in this poem. The second line in this excerpt contains two consecutive accented syllables, "all" and "trades." Then, the third line also uses spondee "fathers-forth."Example #5: Troilus and Cressida (By William Shakespeare)"Cry, cry! Troy burns, or else let Helen go."Shakespeare begins these lines with double spondees. See there is a stress on both syllables of the word "cry," and then there is stress again on the two syllables "Troy burns."Example #6: Lepanto (By G. K. Chesterton)"White founts falling in the courts of the sunAnd the Soldan of Byzantium is smiling as they run ... "In this example, the first line contains spondee in the first two syllables. However, we do not see the use of this meter in the entire poem.Function of SpondeeThe purpose of using spondaic meter is to emphasize particular words, and to create heightened feeling, or provide an emotional experience to the readers by converting a normal expression into dramatic form. It also makes sense more compact and compressed. Though spondee does not add much rhythm, it adds feelings of expectancy in a verse. In addition, it governs both the individual couplet and the entire verse, and makes a poetic line structured in modern poetry. On the other hand, spondee has become more experimental.

Neologism

A neologism is a newly-created word used in expressions, in both writing and speaking. However, all neologisms are not entirely new. Some neologisms are built from new uses of old words, while others are combinations of old and new words. For instance, in the excerpt "Pardon, old father, my mistaking eyes that have been so bedazzled with the sun that everything I look on seemeth green" (The Taming of the Shrew, by William Shakespeare), Shakespeare has coined a word "bedazzled" to express the gleam of sunlight in describing rhinestone-embellished clothing. Popular Use of NeologismBanana RepublicIn Cabbages and Kings, a collection of short stories by O. Henry, the author introduced the term "banana republic." Later, politicians in the U.S. exploited this term in referring to unstable countries that depend upon exported products.FreelancerSir Walter Scott, in his novel Ivanhoe, devised the term "Free Lancers" for people hired as militants.DoormatCharles Dickens first introduced the term "doormat" in his novel Great Expectations, as, "His rookie flailing set back the peace process (such as it was) and made him look like a doormat." Doormat refers to a thick piece of cloth placed on floor in front of the door to clean shoes.Use of Neologism in Internet Vernacular TwitterThe onomatopoeic word "twitter" was first used by Geoffrey Chaucer.YahooYahoo is one of the most popular terms in today's internet world. The word first appeared in Jonathan Swift's novel Gulliver's Travels.Types of NeologismThere are a number of ways for coining new words, using a variety of neologism types. A few of these include:Blending Words or PortmanteausThis type is a blend of two words that create a completely new word such as:Smoke + fog = smogBreakfast + lunch = brunchSpoon + fork = sporkTransferred WordsThese words are derived from other languages, adjusted in English such as, "herbs" has been taken from French herbes.Derived Words These words use Latin and ancient Greek phrases that match with their English counterparts such as, "village," "villager," and "villa" have all been derived from the Latin word villa.Examples of Neologism in LiteratureExample #1: NCIS (by Michael Weatherly)"McGee: What are we looking for?Abby: Just anything that's hinky.McGee: Why do you use that word?Abby: What word?McGee: Hinky. It's a made-up word.Abby: All words are made-up words."In this excerpt, the underlined word "hinky" is a coined word that is also a police slang, which means nervous or uneasy.Example #2: Jabberwocky (by Lewis Carroll)"And hast thou slain the Jabberwock?Come to my arms, my beamish boy!O frabjous day! Callooh! Callay!"He chortled in his joy."In this poem, Carroll has made up the words "calloh, callay" to express a laughing tone that comes between a snort and a chuckle.Example #3: If I Ran the Zoo (by Dr. Seuss)"And then, just to show them, I'll sail to Ka-TrooAnd Bring Back an It-Kutch a Preep and a ProoA Nerkle a Nerd and a Seersucker, too!"Here "Nerd" is a nickname for a creature with long mustaches, wild hair, red face, and yellow skin. It refers to a person having high-intelligence, but lacking social skills.Function of NeologismNeologism shows us that new words can be added to any language. It is not something to stay stagnant. Language constantly evolves and changes with new additions, deletions, and emissions. The task of a good neologism is to create new meanings of some abstract or material ideas that are evolving in new environments. It happens quite often that old words fail to convey the meanings of new circumstances. New words are coined to reflect the changing moods of the time. If a neologism does not convey a true meaning of the new situation, it soon ceases to exist.

Simple Paragraph

A paragraph contains a group of sentences intertwined with each other to discuss, or debate, or explain a central idea. It conventionally begins with an indented line. A beginner writer or a student usually starts writing a paragraph having seven sentences, while some professors of composition advise beginners to start with nine sentences, and some others ask them to start with eleven sentences. Some, however, teach all three paragraph types step by step. Elements of a Simple ParagraphA simple paragraph is comprised of three major components. The first sentence, which is often a declarative sentence, is called the "topic sentence." It introduces the topic of the paragraph, setting its tone and mood. The next few sentences elaborate, explain, and exemplify the topic introduced in it. These sentences also provide supporting details for the explanation or examples. The final sentence is the concluding sentence, which wraps up the topic discussed in the paragraph.Difference Between a Simple Paragraph and Body Paragraph of an Essay A simple paragraph is the first element taught in writing. It is an independent entity, without any connection to any other topic, thought or idea. It exists on its own. However, a body paragraph is part of an organized essay where several thoughts on a topic are discussed, and the body paragraph discusses one of them mentioned in the thesis statement of the essay. It has no ending sentence, as it connects the thought with the next paragraph.Examples of General Paragraphs in LiteratureExample #1: Politics and English Language (by George Orwell)"The inflated style itself is a kind of euphemism. A mass of Latin words falls upon the facts like soft snow, blurring the outline and covering up all the details. The great enemy of clear language is insincerity. When there is a gap between one's real and one's declared aims, one turns as it were instinctively to long words and exhausted idioms, like a cuttlefish spurting out ink. In our age there is no such thing as 'keeping out of politics.' All issues are political issues, and politics itself is a mass of lies, evasions, folly, hatred, and schizophrenia. When the general atmosphere is bad, language must suffer. I should expect to find — this is a guess which I have not sufficient knowledge to verify — that the German, Russian and Italian languages have all deteriorated in the last ten or fifteen years, as a result of dictatorship."Although this is a body paragraph, it can exist on its own. As this a typical example from literature, there are more sentences than a general student-written paragraph has.Example #2: The Theory of Knowledge (by Bertrand Russell)"The question how knowledge should be defined is perhaps the most important and difficult of the three with which we shall deal. This may seem surprising: at first sight it might be thought that knowledge might be defined as belief which is in agreement with the facts. The trouble is that no one knows what a belief is, no one knows what a fact is, and no one knows what sort of agreement between them would make a belief true. Let us begin with belief."This is another example of a good paragraph. It has also discussed a single point that is knowledge and then elaborated it further. It has just four sentences, but they are quite long to make it a unified whole.Example #3: The Olive Tree (by Aldous Huxley) "With clarity and definition is associated a certain physical spareness. Most of the great deciduous trees of England give one the impression, at any rate in summer, of being rather obese. In Scandinavian mythology Embla, the elm, was the first woman. Those who have lived much with old elm trees—and I spent a good part of my boyhood under their ponderous shade—will agree that the Scandinavians were men of insight. There is in effect something blowsily female about those vast trees that brood with all their bulging masses of foliage above the meadows of the home counties. In winter they are giant skeletons; and for a moment in the early spring a cloud of transparent emerald vapor floats in the air; but by June they have settled down to an enormous middle age."This is a very good example of a typical paragraph Aldous Huxley wrote for his essay "The Olive Tree." It has more sentences than a common paragraph has but it can exist on its own.Function of Simple ParagraphA paragraph is the smallest writing piece that can exist on its own. It discusses a complete thought or idea or point. It tells readers in an organized way about the thing that it discusses, describes or defines. For students, a paragraph is a first step to composition before writing a complete essay.

Passive Voice

A passive voice is a type of a clause or sentence in which an action (through verb), or an object of a sentence, is emphasized rather than its subject. Simply, the subject receives the action of the verb. The emphasis or focus is on the action, while the subject is not known or is less important. For instance, in the sentence "[Fern] found an old milking stool that had been discarded, and she placed the stool in the sheepfold next to Wilbur's pen" (Charlotte's Web, by E.B. White), the underlined phrase is an example of a passive voice in which the author has not identified the subject - the reader does not know who discarded the milking stool. Rather, the focus is on the action of placing the abandoned stool.Everyday Use of Passive VoiceA book was written.The focus in this sentence is on the action of a book that was written; however, readers do not know who wrote the book.Many people were killed in the war against terrorism.The emphasis is on the action "were killed." Here again the subject is not identified.The house was renovated last week.The "house" has become the subject in this sentence, as it receives the action.The function is ruined.The focus in on something having been ruined, but the readers do not know who has ruined it.Types of Passive Voice Short Passive - In this type of construction, the subject or the performer is not known. For instance, in the phrase "a mistake is made," there is no subject, or the subject is unknown.Long Passive - In this type of construction, the object becomes the subject of the sentence. For instance, in the sentence, "The house was cleaned by aunty," the object "the house" has become the subject.Examples of Passive Voice in LiteratureExample #1: The Oxford History of the American People (by Samuel Eliot Morison)"America was discovered accidentally by a great seaman who was looking for something else... America was named after a man who discovered no part of the New World. History is like that, very chancy."Here, author Samuel Eliot Morison has employed passive voice in the underlined phrases. The first one is a short passive, while the second one is a long passive.Example #2: The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (by Douglas Adams)"In the beginning the Universe was created. This has made a lot of people very angry and has been widely regarded as a bad move."Both of these sentences have used passive voice. They have identified neither the subject, nor the performer. However, the action is clear; the readers able to understand the meanings.Example #3: Psychological Foundations of Educational Technology (by W.C. Trow and E.E. Haddan) "Thus it is believed that in the elementary school a class of fifteen pupils for one teacher gives better results than either a class of three or a class of thirty."In this long sentence, the subject is not identified, as the emphasis is on the action of "believing." This leaves the question of who believes.Example #4: Oh Pray My Wings Are Gonna Fit Me Well (by Maya Angelou)"Her bones were foundround thirty years laterwhen they razedher building toput up a parking lot."The underlined phrase is an example of a short passive voice construction in which the subject (who found her bones) is not known, because the sentence emphasizes the action and not the subject.Example #5: The Master of the Game (by Sidney Sheldon)"The large ballroom was crowded with familiar ghosts come to help celebrate her birthday... Earlier, dinner had been served outdoors. The large and formal garden had been festively decorated with lanterns and ribbons and balloons. Their corpses had been perfectly preserved by the ammonia in the air, and their hair had turned a bright red."Sidney Sheldon has not mentioned who crowded the ballroom, who served the dinner, or who decorated garden. He has only mentioned the actions to draw the attention of the readers to the preparations.Function of Passive VoiceStyle guides do not support the use of passive voice in technical writings, because it makes the text lengthy, slow to read, and often ambiguous. However, it is very common in literature, lab reports, and scientific writings, where the performer is given lesser importance than the action. In these types of writings, a passive voice is very helpful to avoid taking responsibility of the actions. It is also useful when a writer wants to shift focus from the subject to an action.

Ad Hominem

Ad hominem is a Latin word that means "against the man." As the name suggests, it is a literary term that involves commenting on or against an opponent, to undermine him instead of his arguments.There are cases in which, whether consciously or unconsciously, people start to question the opponent or his personal associations, rather than evaluating the soundness and validity of the argument that he presents. These types of arguments are usually mistaken for personal insults, but they are somehow different in nature, and the distinction is very subtle.Arguers who are not familiar with the principles of making logical arguments commonly end up saying something that would draw the audience's attention to the distasteful characteristics of the individual. Such people use this fallacy as a tool to deceive their audiences. Making such a blatant personal comment against somebody makes it hard for people to believe it isn't true. Typically, even the arguer himself believes that such personal traits or circumstances are not enough to dispose of an individual's opinion or argument. However, if looked at rationally, such arguments - even if true - never provide a valid reason to disregard someone's criticism.Examples of Ad HominemExample #1:"How can you argue your case for vegetarianism when you are enjoying that steak?"This clearly shows how a person is attacked instead of being addressed for or against his argument.Example #2:A classic example of ad hominem fallacy is given below:A: "All murderers are criminals, but a thief isn't a murderer, and so can't be a criminal."B: "Well, you're a thief and a criminal, so there goes your argument."Example #3: VeloNews: The Journal of Competitive Cycling After an article about the retirement of Lance Armstrong, the VeloNews webpage shared a post with its readers. A commenter posted a comment saying how great an athlete Armstrong was, and that people should be proud of his achievements.Another commenter wrote in response to the first commenter:"He's not a great athlete; he's a fraud, a cheat and a liar. That's why not everybody is 'happy for Lance.'"The reasons given by the arguer may very well be true, but he does not support his argument with reason and logic. He rather takes the disregarding approach. He does not say anything to prove that the premises he proposes are problematic. Instead, he goes on attacking the person who proposed them.Function of Ad Hominem A writer's background is considered to be a very important factor when it comes to judging his work. A book written on a particular subject in history will be perceived differently, keeping in mind the background of the author. Therefore, it is important to understand that a writer's traits and circumstances have a pivotal role to play in his feelings, thinking, and the construction of his arguments.To put it simply, the considerations regarding the use of ad hominem can explain certain arguments and the motives behind them better. Nevertheless, such considerations are not enough on their own to evaluate an individual's opinion, and are certainly not sufficient to disregard them as false or invalid.The fact is that ad hominem is a kind of fallacy that leaves a great impression on the audience's mind. It is an argumentative flaw that is hard to spot in our daily lives. Although, the personal attack that has been made on the opponent might not have even a speck of truth in it, it somehow makes the audience biased. Ironically, despite being flawed, ad hominem has an amazing power of persuasion.The worst thing about using ad hominem purposely is that an opponent insults you publicly. Whenever this happens to you, you must recover from the humiliation and then point out the false connection in the argument, which was used as a trap for the audience. Moreover, the dilemma with ad hominem is that, once it has been used against a person, it smears his reputation. Once somebody makes such a judgmental argument about someone, the audience instead of evaluating it on logical grounds takes it to be true.

Propaganda

Propaganda is the spreading of rumors, false or correct information, or an idea, in order to influence the opinion of society. It may advance an idea or bring into disrepute an opposite idea. In literature, writers use propaganda as a literary technique to manipulate public opinion for or against one idea or another. In history, we can search a plethora of literary works used as propaganda to shape public perceptions, and direct their behavior to get a response. Generally, propaganda is a technique for convincing people, but which is misleading in nature, or promotes a false viewpoint. Popular Examples of PropagandaThe U.S. dropped leaflets in a propaganda campaign in Iraq, to let the people know that Saddam Hussein was the real culprit they were looking for.People use name-calling as propaganda, such as "My enemy is a drug addict."During the McCarthy era, mass media attempted to persuade the public, through propaganda, that Communists had become very powerful, and that they would take over the U.S.Slogans or catchphrases can work as propaganda, when they are repeated over and over. Eventually, the public starts believing them.Selling happiness has become popular concept in ads, and serves as propaganda such as famous celebrities explain to the public why they need to purchase the product because it would solve their problems.Examples of Propaganda in Literature Example #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell)Propaganda played a very important role in the Russian Revolution. George Orwell wrote his novel Animal Farm after this revolution, and used anti-communist propaganda as its major theme. The author manipulated the speech of the character Squealer, which is a pig portrayed as Napoleon's spokesperson.One example of Squealer's propaganda is to get the support of other animals. He uses manipulated speech to disapprove of Snowball's part in the uprising revolt after his banishment from the farm. He uses the stupidity of animals for his benefit, and plays with their minds by describing a different side of events in the Battle of the Cowshed.We can see another example of propaganda in this novel, when pigs twist the rules and the Seven Commandments for their own advantage. The original rule reads:"No animal shall be killed by any other animal."They change this to:"No animal shall be killed by any other animal without cause."Example #2: The Orphan Master's Son (By Adam Johnson)Adam Johnson's novel The Orphan Master's Son deals with the themes of identity, state power, and propaganda in North Korea. The story is about two men from North Korea who revolted against the tyrannical government of their country. Through their story, readers get the impression that the North Korean leaders are selfish, as they kidnap their people, steal their money, and cheat them.Example #3: Richard III (By W. H. Auden) Many critics consider some historical plays of Shakespeare as Tudor propagandas, as they depict civil war dangers, and commemorate the Tudor dynasty's founders. Similarly, in his play Richard III, Shakespeare uses propaganda, when we see Richard shapes the readers' perceptions. He gains the sympathies of other characters in the play when he declares his deformity is the root cause of wickedness in his character. Hence, he makes use of deformity as propaganda, and controls, injures, and manipulates other people for his personal gain.Example #4: Lord of the Flies (By William Golding)In William Golding's Lord of the Flies, the author introduces the concept of a beast, using propaganda by his character Jack, who plans to take control of a totalitarian government. He uses propaganda by manipulating the cognition of the young boys, frightening them about the existence of the beast in that area. He accuses Ralph, who does not carry out his duty to provide protection to the children, and consequently takes charge of a new tribe that would follow his tyrannical rules.Function of PropagandaWe can easily find the use of propaganda technique in mass media advertising, politics, and literature. It is a very popular technique in academic commentary, and is taken as an interchangeable form of communication. The primary function of propaganda is to persuade the audience, and to mold their perceptions about a particular cause.Often, propaganda assists in promoting policies. In addition, it aims at getting a response of the audience taking a certain action. This is because merely securing a commitment or assent would not be enough for making this technique successful, and securing its purpose. Besides, propaganda serves as an effective weapon to rouse people by making them realize their vulnerabilities and frailties, instead of comforting them with illusions.

Explicatory Essay

"Explication" means to explain the work of an item of literature. An explication, or "explicatory" essay is used to explain and interpret a piece of literature such as a poem, a play, a novel, or a short story. It often examines sentences, verses, or passages extracted from longer literary works. Like all other types of essays, however, it also needs a clear thesis around which body parts focus, ending on a conclusion. The text is cited at different places to support the main claim and move the argument forward. Difference Between an Explicatory Essay and a Critical EssayA critical essay is also a literary type of essay. It discusses only the piece's literary merits and demerits, by comparing it with other literary pieces. An explicatory essay, on the other hand, discusses the full structure of the literary piece.Examples of Explicatory Essay in Literature Example #1: A Poetry of Proximity (By Solmaz Sharif)"Language, of course, is constantly being redefined, not just by demagogues, but by people who employ it. Language is we realized. Each word has passed mouth by mouth over the centuries, changed by intonation and accent, changed by wit and utility. Those before us decided that a certain thing—an amaranth, a colander—needs naming. Naming, as Emerson argues, is a poet's undertaking. It is not happenstance that the poet's job is the job of language itself—to reach beyond the impossible chasm of two minds, of multiple times, and make known the inner things. And language, like the other democratic things—freedom of assembly, habeas corpus—is among first casualties of war. The maiming and obliteration of language preempts and attempts to excuse the maiming and obliteration of bodies. Poets, as the caretakers of language, if by no other contested purpose of poetry—to humanize, to emote, to demand a 'total reaction' as Muriel Rukeyser puts it—are called upon to respond, to defend their medium."This is the best example of an explication of poetry. Solmaz Sharif has given a review of the what is proximity in poetry and how proximity of poetry helps poets to humanize feelings.Example #2: The Well Wrought Urn (by Cleanth Brooks)"T. S. Eliot, for example, says that 'this line ["Beauty is truth," etc.] strikes me as a serious blemish on a beautiful poem; and the reason must be either that I fail to understand it, or that it is a statement which is untrue.' But even for persons who feel that they do understand it, the line may still constitute a blemish. Middleton Murry, who, after a discussion of Keats's other poems and his letters, feels that he knows what Keats meant by 'beauty' and what he meant by 'truth,' and that Keats used them in senses which allowed them to be properly bracketed together, still, is forced to conclude: 'My own opinion concerning the value of these two lines in the context of the poem itself is not very different from Mr. T. S. Eliot's.' The troubling assertion is apparently an intrusion upon the poem-does not grow out of it-is not dramatically accommodated to it."This is another example of explication of Ode to Urn by John Keats. Cleanth Brooks has reviewed the poem and the role of Urn it along with Eliot's thought about Keats' poetry.Example #3: Metaphysical Poets (by T. S. Eliot) "Not only is it extremely difficult to define metaphysical poetry, but difficult to decide what poets practise it and in which of their verses. The poetry of Donne (to whom Marvell and Bishop King are sometimes nearer than any of the other authors) is late Elizabethan, its feeling often very close to that of Chapman. The 'courtly' poetry is derivative from Jonson, who borrowed liberally from the Latin; it expires in the next century with the sentiment and witticism of Prior. There is finally the devotional verse of Herbert, Vaughan, and Crashaw (echoed long after by Christina Rossetti and Francis Thompson); Crashaw, sometimes more profound and less sectarian than the others, has a quality which returns through the Elizabethan period to the early Italians. It is difficult to find any precise use of metaphor, simile, or other conceit, which is common to all the poets and at the same time important enough as an element of style to isolate these poets as a group. Donne, and often Cowley, employ a device which is sometimes considered characteristically 'metaphysical'; the elaboration (contrasted with the condensation) of a figure of speech to the farthest stage to which ingenuity can carry it."This is an example of Eliot's explication of poetry by metaphysical poets such as Herbert, Vaughan, and Crashaw. He has explicated several of their poems in his essay.Example #4: Pride and Prejudice (by Jane Austen)"Mr. Bingley was good-looking and gentlemanlike; he had a pleasant countenance, and easy, unaffected manners. ... he was discovered to be proud, to be above his company, and above being pleased; and not all his large estate in Derbyshire could then save him from having a most forbidding, disagreeable countenance, and being unworthy to be compared with his friend."Mr. Bingley, the romantic interest of Jane, and his friend, Mr. Darcey, are described in this excerpt through direct characterization. She has admired Mr. Bingley for his pleasant countenance, comparing him to Mr. Darcy.Example #5: The Canterbury Tales (by Geoffrey Chaucer)"He yaf nat of that text a pulled hen,That seith that hunters ben nat hooly men,Ne that a monk, whan he is recchelees...His heed was balled, that shoon as any glas,And eek his face, as he hadde been enoynt.His eyen stepe, and rollynge in his heed,That stemed as a forneys of a leed;His bootes souple, his hors in greet estaat."Through monk's portrait, his physical and social life, readers see a satire of the religious figures that should live a proper monastic life of hard work and deprivation. This is the achievement of the description of Chaucer that he has described a character through direct characterization.Function of an Explicatory EssayAn explicatory essay does not directly point out merits and demerits of a poem or a short story. Rather, it discusses the text and its structure. The merits of the work emerge out of its explicatory analysis. Readers fully understand the deficiencies or demerits if there are any, but a critic only discusses the structure and what is presents within the text in a critical essay.

Paralipsis

Paralipsis is from the Greek word paraleipein, which means "to omit," or "to leave something on one side." It is defined as a rhetorical device in which an idea is deliberately suggested through a brief treatment of a subject, while most of the significant points are omitted. It is explained through the use of this device that some points are too obvious to mention. Also, paralipsis is a way of emphasizing a subject by apparently passing over it. This is one of the finest contemporary examples of paralipsis:"I'm not saying I'm responsible for this country's longest run of uninterrupted peace in 35 years! I'm not saying that from the ashes of captivity, never has a Phoenix metaphor been more personified! I'm not saying Uncle Sam can kick back on a lawn chair, sipping on an iced tea, because I haven't come across any one man enough to go toe to toe with me on my best day!"(Iron Man 2 by Justin Theroux)Features of ParalipsisParalipsis is a literary device in which a speaker pretends to hide what he exactly wants to say and enforce. It is a type of irony in which an outline of a message is conveyed in a manner that seems to suppress the exact message. Paraliptic strike-through is a form of paralipsis. It is a standard rhetorical device in journalism and print media.Examples of Paralipsis in Literature Example #1: The Knight's Tale (By Geoffrey Chaucer)"The music, the service at the feast,The noble gifts for the great and small,The rich adornment of Theseus's palaceAll these things I do not mention now."In the example above, paralipsis is used wonderfully. Though all the important points are mentioned clearly, Chaucer seems to pretend in the final line that he has not given any significance to these points.Example #2: A Modest Proposal (By Jonathan Swift)"Therefore, let no man talk to me of other expedients: of taxing our absentees ... of using neither clothes, nor house hold furniture ... of curing the expensiveness of pride, vanity, idleness, and gaming, of learning to love our country..."This excerpt is a good example of paralipsis, as Swift briefly suggests the idea of expedients, while trying to show that this idea is not of much significance and should be passed over.Example #3: Blue Shoes and Happiness (By Alexander McCall Smith) "Ssh," said Grace Makutsi, putting a finger to her lips. "It's not polite to talk about it. SO I won't mention the Double Comfort Furniture Shop, which is one of the businesses my fiance owns, you know. I must not talk about that. But do you know the store, Mma? If you save up, you should come in some day and buy a chair ..."Here, the orator emphasizes the point by passing over it, saying, "I must not talk about that." The nullifying statement is mentioning the furniture shop. The paraliptic line is in bold.Example #4: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare)"Have patience, gentle friends, I must not read it.It is not meet you know how Caesar loved you.You are not wood; you are not stones, but men;And, being men, hearing the will of Caesar,It will inflame you, it will make you mad ...For if you should-oh-what would come of it! ...But here's a parchment, with the seal of Caesar;I found it in his closet. 'Tis his will.Let but the commons hear this testament—Which, pardon me, I do not mean to read— ..."This is one of the most famous paralipsis examples. Here, Mark Antony provokes the public by talking about the will of Caesar; meanwhile, he suppresses the matter without directly mentioning the subject.Function of ParalipsisThe purpose of the employment of paralipsis is to deliberately emphasize or assert an idea by pretending to ignore or pass over it. Paralipsis examples are very common in literary works, journalism, and political speeches. The orators use this device to draw the attention of readers towards a sensitive matter, while the orator ostensibly seems detached from it. Often, descriptive works that lack the direct meaning of an idea use paralipsis. Besides, as a rhetorical device, its approach is ironic because the intentions of writers are different. However, writers use paralipsis in order to keep themselves away from unfair claims, though they bring them up quite often.

Parallel Structure

Parallel structure is a stylistic device, and a grammatical construction having two or more clauses, phrases or words, with similar grammatical form and length. It is similar to parallelism. In parallel structure, sentences have a series of phrases or clauses, which start and end in almost a similar fashion, by keeping the rhythm of the lines. These structures are repetitions that offer an enjoyable time for the readers to absorb and understand ideas, facts, and concepts. Everyday Examples of Parallel StructureMany people like riding, hiking, biking, and swimming.The teacher told the students that they need to get up early in the morning, that they need to sleep properly, and that they need to eat properly.The cat runs across the garden, jumps over to the plant, and moves down the road.Examples of Parallel Structure in Literature Example #1: Good Faith (by Jane Smiley)"I had been short, and now I was tall. I had been skinny and quiet and religious, and now I was good-looking and muscular. It was Sally Baldwin who brought me along, told me what to wear and do and think and say. She was never wrong; she never lost her patience. She created me, and when she was done we broke up in a formal sense, but she kept calling me."You can see how perfectly the author has repeated and emphasized the first two lines in the above paragraph. The author has combined several elements, but given them a balance by parallel clauses.Example #2: Goodbye to Forty-Eighth Street (by E.B. White)"The wheels wheeled, the chairs spun, the cotton candy tinted the faces of children, the bright leaves tinted the woods and hills. A cluster of amplifiers spread the theme of love over everything and everybody; the mild breeze spread the dust over everything and everybody. Next morning, in the Lafayette Hotel in Portland, I went down to breakfast and found May Craig looking solemn at one of the tables and Mr. Murray, the auctioneer, looking cheerful at another."The above paragraph shows parallel structures. They not only give a balance, but also a grace to the passage by enhancing its readability.Example #3: Of Studies (by Francis Bacon) "Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider."In these lines, the parallel structures use repetition to lay emphasis, and help the readers to memorize the sentences easily.Example #4: Great Expectations (by Charles Dickens)"A fearful man, all in coarse grey, with a great iron on his leg. A man with no hat, and with broken shoes, and with an old rag tied round his head. A man who had been soaked in water, and smothered in mud, and lamed by stones, and cut by flints, and stung by nettles, and torn by briars... and glared and growled; and whose teeth chattered in his head as he seized me by the chin."This excerpt presents a perfect example of parallel structure, describing a convict who becomes Magwitch. Notice that the first three sentences, which start in a similar way, while the next phrases follow another, similar structure.Example #5: Still Life with Woodpecker (by Tom Robbins)"Humanity has advanced, when it has advanced, not because it has been sober, responsible, and cautious, but because it has been playful, rebellious, and immature."This is another excellent example of parallel structure. These structures give rhythm to sentences and leaving them grammatically balanced.Example #6: We Real Cool (by Gwendolyn Brooks)We real cool. WeLeft school. WeLurk late. WeStrike straight. WeSing sin. WeThin gin. WeJazz June. WeDie soon.The parallel structures in this short poem give it a little waltz and jingle feel. Each parallel sentence follows a basic pattern, starting with pronouns and ending with nouns and adverbs, except the first line, which ends with an adjective.Function of Parallel StructureParallel structure creates fluency in writing and enhances readability, as it uses patterns of words in a way that readers can easily follow, and relate them to each other. It makes language appear refined, especially in writing and advertising. It also lends consistency to professional writing, as it provides rhythm and balance that lead the readers to the exact idea, without any misguidance. In addition, parallel structures synchronize, repeat and emphasize the words and thoughts of the writers.

Parallelism

Parallelism is the use of components in a sentence that are grammatically the same; or similar in their construction, sound, meaning, or meter. Parallelism examples are found in literary works as well as in ordinary conversations. This method adds balance and rhythm to sentences, giving ideas a smoother flow and thus persuasiveness, because of the repetition it employs. For example, "Alice ran into the room, into the garden, and into our hearts." We see the repetition of a phrase that not only gives the sentence a balance, but rhythm and flow as well. This repetition can also occur in similarly structured clauses, such as, "Whenever you need me, wherever you need me, I will be there for you."Common Examples of ParallelismLike father, like son.Easy come, easy go.Whether in class, at work, or at home, Shasta was always busy.Flying is fast, comfortable, and safe.Short Examples of Parallelism in Speech They got together, conversed, and dispersed, but to no avail.He came, he saw, and he conquered.He wanted to have a new house to live in, and a new car to drive.The applicant was approached through telephone, email, and snail mail.Their new teacher was neither a Catholic, nor an Anglican.His favorite foods are chocolate, chips, and soft drinks.The new airline claims to be fast, efficient, and safe.James liked fast food, while Mary liked conventional food.The boss said, "You need to work hard and be efficient to get a promotion."The political leader said, "The present government has ruined the economy; it has ruined the education system; and it has ruined the health system of our country."Shakespeare was a prolific playwright and an excellent sonneteer.The culprit was wanted dead or alive.He preferred fruits to sweets.The book was interesting as well as adventurous.For success in life, one needs to pursue his goal with determination and perseverance.Examples of Parallelism in LiteratureIn literature, parallelism is used in different ways to impress upon the readers certain messages or moral lessons. Let us analyze a few examples of parallelism in literature:Example #1: An Essay on Criticism (By Alexander Pope)Antithesis is a kind of parallelism in which two opposite ideas are put together in parallel structures. Alexander Pope, in his An Essay on Criticism, uses antithetic parallel structure:"To err is human; to forgive divine."Imperfection is a human trait, and God is most forgiving. Through these antithetical but parallel structures, the poet wants to say that God is forgiving because his creation is erring.Example #2: Community (By John Donne)"Good we must love, and must hate ill,For ill is ill, and good good still;But there are things indifferent,Which we may neither hate, nor love,But one, and then another prove,As we shall find our fancy bent."Contrasting ideas of "good" and "ill," "love" and "hate," are placed together in parallel structures to emphasize the fact that we love good because it is always good, and we hate bad because it is always bad.Example #3: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens) We see the repetition of parallel structures in the following lines from A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens:"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair."By repeating "It was..." in the passage, the readers are prompted to focus on the traits of the "age" they will read about in the succeeding passages.Example #4: The Tyger (By William Blake)"What the hammer? what the chain?In what furnace was thy brain?What the anvil? what dread graspDare its deadly terrors clasp?"Blake uses parallel structures, starting with "what" in each phrase, creating a beautiful rhythm in the above lines.Example #5: Henry VIII, Act 3, Scene 2 (By William Shakespeare)Parallelism takes form of "Diazeugma," in which a single subject is connected with multiple verbs. Read the following lines from the speech of Norfolk in William Shakespeare's Henry VIII, Act 3, Scene 2:"My lord, we haveStood here observing him: Some strange commotionIs in his brain: he bites his lip, and starts;Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground,Then, lays his finger on his temple; straight,Springs out into fast gait; then, stops again,Strikes his breast hard; and anon, he castsHis eye against the moon: in most strange posturesWe have seen him set himself."The use of multiple verbs in the above lines creates a dramatic effect in the speech of Norfolk, which makes his description vivid.Example #6: I have a Dream speech (By Martin Luther King Jr.)"I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: 'We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men are created equal.'"I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character."I have a dream today."This is a speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. in which he repeats the phrase, "I have a dream" several times. This phrase later became the title of the speech. This is a good example of parallelism.Example #7: How do I Love Thee (By Elizabeth Barrett Browning)"I love thee freely, as men strive for right.I love thee purely, as they turn from praise."These two verses from the poem of Elizabeth Barrett Browning have been made parallel by the repetition of "I love thee."Example #8: Presidential Inauguration Speech (By Barack Obama)"My fellow citizens: I stand here today humbled by the task before us, grateful for the trust you have bestowed, mindful of the sacrifices borne by our ancestors."In this speech, U.S. President Barack Obama uses structural parallelism in the bold phrases, giving his speech beauty.Function of ParallelismThe use of parallel structures in speech or writing allows speakers and writers to maintain a consistency within their work, and create a balanced flow of ideas. Moreover, it can be employed as a tool for persuasion.

Parenthesis

Parenthesis is a stylistic device that comes from the Greek word meaning "to place," or "alongside." Parenthesis is a qualifying or explanatory sentence, clause, or word that writers insert into a paragraph or passage. However, if they leave it out, even then it does not grammatically affect the text, which is correct without it. Writers mark these explanatory clauses off by round or square brackets, or by commas, dashes, or little lines. As far as its purpose is concerned, this verbal unit provides extra information, interrupts the syntactic flow of words, and allows readers to pay attention to the explanation. However, the overuse of parenthesis may make sentences look ambiguous and poorly structured.Examples of Parenthesis in LiteratureExample #1: One Art (By Elizabeth Bishop)"—Even losing you (the joking voice, a gestureI love) I shan't have lied. It's evidentthe art of losing's not too hard to masterthough it may look like (Write it!) like disaster."Bishop uses an abrupt, excruciating parenthesis towards the end of the poem. For this, she uses brackets, for expressing understatement, and for suggesting how to cope with losses through art by using the phrase "write it."Example #2: The Elements of Style (By William Strunk, Jr. and E. B. White)"It is now necessary to warn you that your concern for the reader must be pure: you must sympathize with the reader's plight (most readers are in trouble about half the time) but never seek to know the reader's wants. Your whole duty as a writer is to please and satisfy yourself..."The style guidebook provides parenthetical information several times. Here, you can see how the authors have explained the reader's plight by giving descriptive sentence in brackets, showing how readers are in trouble.Example #3: The Dogwood Tree: A Boyhood (By John Updike) "A little gravel alley, too small to be marked with a street sign but known in the neighborhood as Shilling Alley, wound hazardously around our property and on down, past an untidy sequence of back buildings (chicken houses, barns out of plumb, a gun shop, a small lumber mill, a shack where a blind man lived, and the enchanted grotto of a garage whose cement floors had been waxed to the luster of ebony by oil drippings ... silver water so cold it made your front teeth throb) on down to Lancaster Avenue, the main street, where the trolley cars ran."Look, the author has employed a detailed descriptive parenthesis in this passage. He explains in detail a sequence of untidy back buildings, and why they give such a miserable look.Example #4: The Horse and His Boy (By C. S. Lewis)"[I]n Calormen, story-telling (whether the stories are true or made up) is a thing you're taught, just as English boys and girls are taught essay-writing. The difference is that people want to hear the stories, whereas I never heard of anyone who wanted to read the essays."Here, Lewis uses round brackets to describe the story, specifying whether they are true or made up. He means to say that people like to listen to a story, which are not taught as are essays. Hence, essays seem boring.Example #5: Lights Out for the Territory (By Iain Sinclair)" 'Black dog' is the mood of bottomless, suicidal despair suffered, most notoriously, by Winston Churchill (himself a kind of bulldog in nappies, a logo for Empire; growling and dribbling, wheezing smoke, swollen veins fired with brandy)."In this essay, Sinclair gives the readers a unique, enlightened, provocative, disturbing, and utterly daring picture of modern city life in London, and of its people. In the process, he reveals a dark underbelly of London, as you can see his provocative understatement and parenthetical information about Winston Churchill.Function of Parenthesis Parenthesis makes the statements more convincing, as it puts the readers in a right form from the very beginning where they read it as an explanation. However, its main function is to give more explanation and add emphasis, while its repeated use can cause focus and thus makes parenthetical insertions a dominant feature of a sentence.Parenthesis also offers readers an insight into true feelings and opinions of characters and narrators, while they might tend to evade parenthetical information as unimportant. Doing this, parenthesis could leave them clueless to the actual purpose of a sentence. In addition, it often creates humorous effect by using hyperbole and understatements.

Parody

Parody is an imitation of a particular writer, artist, or genre, exaggerating it deliberately to produce a comic effect. The humorous effect in parody is achieved by imitating and overstressing noticeable features of a famous piece of literature, as in caricatures, where certain peculiarities of a person are highlighted to achieve a humorous effect. We, in our daily lives, can employ the above technique to spoof somebody for the sake of fun. For example, there is an Indian student in your classroom, and one day, in a gathering of a few friends, you say,"Will you veddy much bring me a Coke please?"This imitation of an Indian accent is a parody.Parody examples are often confused as examples of satire. Although parody can be used to develop satire, it differs from satire to a certain extent. Parody mimics a subject directly, to produce a comical effect. Satire, on the other hand, makes fun of a subject without a direct imitation. Moreover, satire aims at correcting shortcomings in society by criticizing them.Parody Examples in Everyday LifeExample #1: TV Shows of Parody and SatireIn our daily watching of television, we may see extremely hilarious examples of parody in shows that blend parody and satire. Examples like The Daily Show, The Colbert Report, and The Larry Sanders Show are renowned for mimicking famous political personalities, and this allows them to target what they think are unintelligent political and social viewpoints.Example #2: Mimicking MoviesParody has entered our day-to-day life through hilarious parody movies that mimic famous blockbusters. For instance, the movie Vampire Sucks parodies and pokes fun at the blockbuster Twilight series, which was a film adaptation of Stephanie Meyer's novel Twilight.Examples of Parody in Literature Example #1: Sonnet 130 (By William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare wrote Sonnet 130 in parody of traditional love poems common in his day. He presents an anti-love poem theme in a manner of a love poem, mocking the exaggerated comparisons they made:"My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun;Coral is far more red than her lips' red;If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun;If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head.I have seen roses damasked, red and white,But no such roses see I in her cheeks..."Unlike a love-poem goddess, his mistress does not have eyes like the sun, she does not have red lips, nor does she have a white complexion. Her cheeks do not have a rosy color, and her hair is not silky smooth. All the cliché qualities are missing in his mistress. Such a description allows Shakespeare to poke fun at the love poets who looked for such impossible qualities in their beloved.Example #2: Don Quixote (By Miguel de Cervantes)Don Quixote, written by Miguel de Cervantes, is a parody of romances written in his day. The main character, Quixote, and his overweight sidekick Sancho, delude themselves to thinking that they are knights of the medieval romances. They believe that they are entrusted with the obligation to save the world. Therefore, the adventure starts as an imitation of the real romances but of course, in a hilarious manner.We laugh at how Quixote was bestowed knighthood in his battle with the giants [windmills]. We enjoy how the knight helps the Christian king against the army of a Moorish monarch [herd of sheep]. These and the rest of the incidents of the novel are written in the style of Spanish romances of the 16th century to mock the idealism of knights in the contemporary romances.Example #3: Gulliver's Travels (By Jonathan Swift)Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels is a parody of travel narratives, as well as a satire on contemporary England. As the empire of England spread to far off lands, it became a center of navigation and exploration. Adventure and travel narratives telling stories of strange lands became popular.Example #4: Robinson Crusoe (By Daniel Defoe)Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe was a travel narrative. Swift adopted a similar mode to describe Gulliver's travels to the strange land of Lilliput, and other such places where he meets "Lilliputians," and the giant "Brobdingnagians." He also meets other strange creatures like "Laputians" and "Houyhnhnms," and the "Yahoos". The parody for Swift was intended as a satire on English society.Function of ParodyParody is a kind of comedy that imitates and mocks individuals or a piece of work. However, when it mingles with satire, it makes satire more pointed and effective. Most importantly, a parody appeals to the reader's sense of humor. He enjoys the writer poking fun at the set ideals of society, and becomes aware of the lighter side of an otherwise serious state of affairs. Thus, parody adds spice to a piece of literature that keeps the readers interested.

Paronomasia

Paronomasia is a rhetorical device that can be defined as a phrase intentionally used to exploit the confusion between words having similar sounds but different meanings. It is like a word play, and is also known as a "pun." Types of ParonomasiaThere are two types of paronomasia:Typographic ParonomasiaTypographic paronomasia is further classified into five categories:Homophonic - The use of words that sound the same, but have different meanings, such as "Pour out corruption's slag from every pore."Homographic - Words that are spelled the same, but have different meanings, such as "David doesn't feel well today," and "My uncle is digging a new well."Homonymic - These words include both homographs and homophones.Compound - These contain two or more puns in a sentence.Recursive - In these, the second part of a pun depends upon the meaning of the first.Visual ParonomasiaThese are actually puns and used in non-phonetic texts. Visual paronomasia includes the "4 Pics 1 Word" word game, where players are supposed to look at four pictures and guess the word that they have in common.Examples of Paronomasia in Literature Paronomasia underscores the expertise of writers and their characters. From Jesus Christ to Shakespeare, examples of paronomasia have been crafted to create rhetorical effect.Example #1: Richard III (By William Shakespeare) Launce: "It is no matter if the tied were lost; for it is the unkindest tied that ever any man tied."Richard: "Now is the winter of our discontent ... made glorious summer by this Son of York."William Shakespeare is probably the most renowned punster in literature. Here the word "tied" is used three times as homophonic paronomasia, giving different meanings in three different places. Similarly, the word "son" is King Edward IV, not the weather of York.Example #2: A Hymn to God the Father (By John Donne)"When Thou hast done, Thou hast not done for I have more.That at my death Thy SonShall shine as he shines now, and heretoforeAnd having done that, Thou hast done;I fear no more."In the above excerpt, John Donne has rhymed his name with "done," and his wife's name Anne More with "more." The words are underlined. This is an example of homophonic paronomasia.Example #3: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)Mercutio: "Nay, gentle Romeo, we must have you dance."Romeo: "Not I, believe me. You have dancing shoes with nimble soles; I have a soul of lead ... So stakes me to the ground I cannot move..."This extract is again an example of homophonic paronomasia. Shakespeare has exploited the words "sole" and "soul." Both sound the same, though they have different meanings, creating comic effect.Example #4: Great Expectations (By Charles Dickens)"Tickler was a wax-ended piece of cane, worn smooth by collision with my tickled frame."Here, Dickens plays on the word "tickle." This word is maneuvered in such a way that it gives two different meanings and comic effect.Example #5: Ulysses (By James Joyce)"If you see kayTell him he maySee you in teaTell him from me -"Joyce has included this brief poem with paronomasia words in it. Here, the word "see" is used with the same spelling but different meanings. It is creating humor when spelled out.Example #6: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)Claudius:"...But now, my cousin Hamlet, and my son."Hamlet: [aside] "A little more than kin, and less than kind ... Not so, my lord, I am too much in the sun."Here, Hamlet is distressed that his mother married his uncle, which is not allowed in Christianity. The word "kind" is used as a short form of kindred. Shakespeare plays with the meaning of this word "kind."Function of ParonomasiaParonomasia gives thoughtful meanings to literary texts, aside from providing humorous and witty comments. Through paronomasia, writers demonstrate the shrewdness of characters, and their own ingenuity by playing with the words. Besides, in literary works, paronomasia functions as a purposeful efforts to provide a source of comic relief, and to show their artistic ability. Being a source of fun, paronomasia is used in comedy theaters, and jokes give humorous meanings to perplexing stories. Also, it is found in limerick forms of poetry.

Parrhesia

Parrhesia is borrowed from a Greek word that means "to speak boldly, freely, or with bombastic bluntness." It is saying something boldly and freely without leaving any doubt behind. It involves not only the freedom of speech, but also implies the use of truth in speech or writing. In Parrhesia, writers open their minds and hearts fully to the readers or audience through discourse, and a speaker makes it clear what his opinion is. In simple words, it is a direct expression shown through words. Evolution of ParrhesiaParrhesia first appeared in Euripides as a rhetorical device in Geek literature, and it evolved through several centuries. Later on, parrhesia was introduced in Athenian democracy. Finally it entered into the field of philosophy, where Socrates was known as a true parrhesiastic writer. Examples of parrhesia are found in the works of Seneca, a famous Greek Epicurean, who is famous for having used parrhesia.Examples of Parrhesia in Literature Example #1: King Lear (By William Shakespeare)Kent: "Royal LearWhom I ever honoured as king,Lov'd as my father, as my master follow'd ...This hideous rashness ..."Kent shows a respectful protest to King Lear on behalf of Cordelia, which is an example of parrhesia. Though he wins sudden banishment and the enmity of the king, he persuades the audience through his uprightness and honesty.Example #2: The Canterbury Tales (By Geoffrey Chaucer)"Ne that a monk, whan he is cloisterlees,Is lykned til a fish that is waterlees;This is to seyn, a monk out of his cloistre ......Upon a book in cloistrealwey to poure,As Austin bit? How shal the world be served?Lat Austin have his swink to him reserved..."Chaucer criticizes a monk through free speech in this passage, by saying that the monk is supposed to do his duty for the church and the welfare of people; but instead, he involves himself in other activities like hunting.Example #3: A Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce) "The muddy streets were gay. He strode homeward, conscious of an invisible grace pervading and making light his limbs. In spite of all he had done it. He had confessed and God had pardoned him ... It was beautiful to live in grace a life of peace and virtue and forbearance with others..."Here, the narrator boldly reports the dialogue and thoughts of the character. He speaks in such a way as if the character himself is speaking directly and freely.Example #4: Animal Farm (By George Orwell)"Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable, laborious, and short.""No, comrades, a thousand times no! The soil of England is fertile, its climate is good.""Man is the only real enemy we have. Remove Man from the scene, and the root cause of hunger and overwork is abolished for ever."In this passage, all the animals listen carefully to Old Major, who tells them the plain truth - that their lives are miserable and laborious solely due to human oppressors. He instructs them through free speech that human beings are the only reasons for their plight.Example #5: A Modest Proposal (By Jonathan Swift)"These mothers instead of being able to work for their honest livelihood, are forced to employ all their time in strolling to beg sustenance for their helpless infants who, as they grow up, either turn thieves for want of work, or leave ...I think it is agreed by all parties that this prodigious number of children in arms, or on backs, or at the heels of their mothers, and frequently of their fathers, is, in the present deplorable state of the kingdom, a very great additional grievance."The writer brings into play a sense of melancholy, and delivers a fearless speech for the children and women begging on Ireland's streets. He shows his grievance about their miserable condition, and suggests that if anyone does something positive for them, it would be a great service.Function of ParrhesiaSince parrhesia is free speech, this straight, bold language is preferably used in an attempt to gain the attention of readers, and then to change their beliefs instantly. Often, parrhesia is employed for logical and moral purposes; however, sometimes writers use negative parrhesia in order to unleash their ideas boldly and freely without forethought. Parrhesia examples are in literary and philosophical works. Also, politicians, religious zealots, and the business community use it frequently as a rhetorical device.

Pastiche

Pastiche is a literary piece that imitates a famous literary work by another writer. Unlike parody, its purpose is not to mock, but to honor the literary piece it imitates. This literary device is generally employed to imitate a piece of literary work light-heartedly, but in a respectful manner. The term pastiche also applies to a literary work that is a broad mixture of things - such as themes, concepts, and characters - imitated from different literary works. For instance, many of the pastiche examples are in the form of detective novels that are written in the style of the original Sherlock Holmes stories. It features either Sherlock Holmes, or a different main character that is like him.Examples of Pastiche in LiteratureExample #1: Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead (By Tom Stoppard)Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead - a tragicomedy written by Tom Stoppard - is one of the best examples of pastiche. It develops upon two minor characters: Rosencrantz, and Guildenstern, who appear for a brief moment in Shakespeare's play Hamlet. The title is taken from Hamlet's Act 5, Scene 3, when an ambassador from England announces, "Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are dead." The two characters, standing behind the curtains, express their confusion on the events of the main play "Hamlet" enacted on the stage.Example #2: The British Museum Is Falling Down (By David Lodge)David Lodge's comic novel The British Museum Is Falling Down contains imitations of ten different novelists. He gives reference to each particular writer in the text before he starts imitating their style. For example, in Chapter 3, the character Adam Appleby, hero of the novel, is riding his scooter, and gets stuck in traffic on his way to the British Museum Library. He tells us about "Mrs. Dalloway's booming out the half hour" ( a reference to Virginia Woolf's novel "Mrs. Dalloway"). Then, we get to read a passage that comically imitates Woolf's style:"It partook, he thought, shifting his weight in the saddle, of metempsychosis, the way his humble life fell into moulds prepared by literature. Or was it, he wondered, picking his nose, the result of closely studying the sentence structure of the English novelists? One had resigned oneself to having no private language any more, but one had clung wistfully to the illusion of a personal property of events. A find and fruitless illusion, it seemed, for here, inevitably came the limousine, with its Very Important Personage, or Personages, dimly visible in the interior. The policeman saluted, and the crowd pressed forward, murmuring 'Philip', 'Tony', 'Margaret', 'Prince Andrew'."We see the merging of the outer and inner realities in the passage that is so typical of Virginia Woolf, especially the induction of the reporting clauses "he thought," and "he wondered," in the middle of the reported clauses.Example #3: The Traveler (By Dave McClure) Dave McClure's poem The Traveler is a comical imitation written after Edgar Alan Poe's poem The Raven. Look at McClure's opening stanza:"Long ago upon a hilltop (let me finish then I will stop)I espied a curious traveler where no traveler was before.As I raised an arm in greeting all at once he took to beatingat the air like one entreating passing boats to come ashorelike a castaway repeating empty movements from the shoreor an over-eager *****."It keenly imitates the arrangement of words used by Poe in the original poem. Likewise, it echoes the same rhyming scheme. Read the opening lines from Poe's The Raven for a better comparison:"Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary,Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore,While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door." 'Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door -Only this, and nothing more."The only remarkable difference between the two poems that we can recognize is the serious tone of the original poem contrasts the humorous tone of the imitation.Function of Pastiche Pastiche may be comic in its content, but it does not mock the original works. In pastiche, the writers imitate the style and content of a literary piece to highlight their work, as the original piece is accepted by the vast majority of readers as landmarks of their age. So, imitation in such works celebrates the works of the great writers of the past.

Pathos

Pathos is a quality of an experience in life, or a work of art, that stirs up emotions of pity, sympathy, and sorrow. Pathos can be expressed through words, pictures, or even with gestures of the body. Pathos is an important tool of persuasion in arguments. Pathos is a method of convincing people with an argument drawn out through an emotional response. Analyzing examples of pathos, one would come to the conclusion that it differs from other "ingredients of persuasion," namely "ethos" and "logos." Ethos means convincing others through the credibility of a persuader, while logos is a method to convince others by employing logic and reason.Common Examples of PathosFor a better understanding of the subject, let us examine a few pathos examples from daily conversations:"If we don't leave this place soon, we'll be yelling for help. There's no one to help us here, let's get out of here and live." - This statement evokes emotions of fear.The "Made in America" label on various products sold in America tries to enhance sales by appealing to customers' sense of patriotism.Ads encouraging charitable donations show small children living in pathetic conditions, to evoke pity in people.Referring to a country as "the motherland" stirs up patriotic feelings in individuals living in that country or state.A soft, instrumental symphony may arouse people emotionally.Examples of Pathos in Literature Let us turn to literature to trace some examples of pathos:Example #1: The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (By Mark Twain)Consider this excerpt from chapter 8 of Mark Twain's The Adventures of Tom Sawyer:He had meant the best in the world, and been treated like a dog—like a very dog. She would be sorry someday—maybe when it was too late. Ah, if he could only die TEMPORARILY!Here, Tom arouses feelings of pity in readers' minds by telling how the girl, whom he loved, had treated him like an animal, despite his honest feelings for her. He wishes he had died and then she would feel sorry for him.Example #2: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen)Jane Austen's "Pride and Prejudice" is well known for its pathos. Mr. Collins' confession to Elizabeth that he wants her to be his future partner evokes feelings of sympathy in readers, as they feel an emotional intensity in his proposal.Believe me, my dear Miss Elizabeth, that your modesty adds to your other perfections. But you can hardly doubt the object of my discourse, however your feminine delicacy may lead you to dissemble. For, as almost as soon as I entered the house, I singled you out as the companion of my future life!Example #3: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) Consider this excerpt from Act V of William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet:Then she is well, and nothing can be ill.Her body sleeps in Capels' monument,And her immortal part with angels lives.I saw her laid low in her kindred's vault.Romeo's servant Balthasar invokes pity among the audience, when he informs Romeo - who was waiting impatiently to hear about Juliet - that Juliet is dead and is buried in her family's vault. We feel sorry for the untimely death of Juliet and her heartbroken Romeo.Example #4: Ol' Man River (By Paul Robeson)These lines are taken from Ol' Man River, a lyric composed by Paul Robeson:Darkies work on de MississippiDarkies work while de white folks playWe feel overcome by pity for Black Americans ["Darkies"] who were enslaved to White Americans ["white folks"]. The contrast of the words "work" and "play" shows the social disparity between the two races.Example #5: I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings (By Maya Angelou)In Maya Angelou's I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, pathos is created by presenting a contrast between "the free bird" and "a caged bird."The free bird thinks of another breezeand the trade winds soft through the sighing treesand the fat worms waiting on a dawn bright lawnand he names the sky his ownBut a caged bird stands on the grave of dreamshis shadow shouts on a nightmare screamhis wings are clipped and his feet are tiedso he opens his throat to sing.In this excerpt, we see the words in bold above are associated with a bird in a cage, which makes us feel pity toward that miserable bird.Function of PathosWe humans are emotional beings, and writers know it very well. They introduce pathos in their works to touch upon our delicate senses of pity, sympathy, sorrow, trying to develop an emotional connection with readers.In addition, emotions are part of real life. Thus, by giving pathos expression in their works, writers bring their narratives, characters, and themes closer to real life. Furthermore, the use of pathos by a debater in an argument appeals to people emotionally, making it a tool to convince people and change their opinions.

Sibilance

Sibilance is a literary device where strongly stressed consonants are created deliberately by producing air from vocal tracts through the use of lips and tongue. Such consonants produce hissing sounds. However, in poetry, it is used as a stylistic device, and sibilants are used more than twice in quick succession. Most of the times, the "s" sound is the sibilant. Difference Between Alliteration and SibilanceAlliteration is produced by the repetition of first consonant sounds in the words, generally the first one or two letters, such as in "A big bully beats a baby boy." However, sibilance is also a specific type of alliteration that uses the soft consonants. In sibilance, hissing sounds are created. These soft consonants are s, with sh, ch, and th, including three others such as z, x, f and soft c. For instance, "Sing a Song of Sixpence" is the title of a famous nursery rhyme, which can be considered as a good example of sibilance.Examples of Sibilance in Literature Example #1: A Cradle Song (By William Blake)"Sweet dreams, form a shadeO'er my lovely infants head.Sweet dreams of pleasant streamsBy happy silent moony beamsSweet sleep with soft down.Weave thy brows an infant crown.Sweet sleep Angel mild,Hover o'er my happy child.Sweet smiles in the night,Hover over my delight.Sweet smiles Mothers smiles...Sweet moans, dovelike sighs,Chase not slumber from thy eyes,Sweet moans, sweeter smiles."The poem has a simple aabb rhyme scheme. Blake makes heavy use of sibilance in this poem, especially the "s" sound, as in the bold words. In a similar way, the use of "sh" and "ch" sounds in the words "shade" and "chase" gives softer effects.Example #2: Ode to Autumn (By John Keats)"SEASON of mists and mellow fruitfulness,Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun;Conspiring with him how to load and blessWith fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run;To bend with apples the moss'd cottage-trees,And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core;To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shellsWith a sweet kernel; to set budding more,And still more, later flowers for the bees,For Summer has o'er-brimm'd their clammy cells."This is the first stanza of the poem, which is filled with music and sibilance. The words noted in bold are all are sibilance examples. These are voiced with hissing sounds.Example #3: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) "As whence the sun 'gins his reflectionShipwracking storms and direful thunders break,So from that spring whence comfort seemed to comeDiscomfort swells. Mark, King of Scotland, mark:No sooner justice had, with valor armed...But the Norweyan lord, surveying vantage,With furbished arms and new supplies of men...Till seven at night. To make societyThe sweeter welcome, we will keep ourselvesTill suppertime alone. While then, God be with you!"Here we can clearly see the softer consonants of sibilance, such as "s" sounds in the words noted in bold.Example #4: Prelude 3 (By T. S. Eliot)"THE WINTER evening settles downWith smell of steaks in passageways.Six o'clock.The burnt-out ends of smoky days.And now a gusty shower wrapsThe grimy scrapsOf withered leaves about your feet...The showers beatOn broken blinds and chimney-pots,And at the corner of the streetA lonely cab-horse steams and stamps.And then the lighting of the lamps."In this excerpt, the repetition of the "s" sound (sibilance) is used throughout the poem. It emphasizes the atmosphere of dirty lives. In addition, the continuous use of the "s" sound gives an example of onomatopoeia, as the "scraping" sounds of leaves.Function of SibilanceAn atmosphere can be created through sibilance, which helps in drawing the attention of readers, painting a more colorful picture of the idea or the event. With the help of sibilance, descriptive scenes can be explained more carefully by laying stress on the specific letters. In fact, the sense of repeated sounds, and then the making up of different literary devices through sibilance creates further musical effect for the readers.

Rebuttal

Strictly interpreted, "rebuttal" refers to an attempt to disapprove, contradict, or argue to overcome an opposing reasoning or evidence, by introducing another reasoning and evidence to destroy the effect of the previous one. Rebuttal is a literary technique in which a speaker or writer uses argument, and presents reasoning or evidence intended to undermine or weaken the claim of an opponent. Features of RebuttalThere are many features of an effective rebuttal. First, rebuttal states the opposing side's position without any distortion. Secondly, the writers use quotations with accuracy and fidelity. Thirdly, this technique makes use of professional tone with rationality and courtesy, as it does not allow ridiculing to make points. Finally, rebuttal is often constructively critical, as readers bristle if they encounter extreme negativity.Examples of Rebuttal in Literature Example #1: The Founding Foodies: How Washington, Jefferson, and Franklin Revolutionized American Cuisine (By Dave DeWitt)"A writer in your paper comforts himself, and the India Company, with the fancy that the Americans, should they resolve to drink no more tea, can by no means keep that resolution, their Indian corn not affording 'an agreeable, or easy digestible breakfast.' Pray let me, an American, inform the gentleman, who seems quite ignorant of the matter, that Indian corn, take it for all in all, is one of the most agreeable and wholesome grains in the world; that its green ears roasted are a delicacy beyond expression; that samp, hominy, succatash, and nokehock, made of it, are so many pleasing varieties; and that a johny, or hoe-cake, hot from the fire, is better than a Yorkshire muffin."Benjamin Franklin has written this succinct rebuttal in response to Vindex Patriae, who was a correspondent to Gazetteer and New Daily Advertiser. This correspondent had ridiculed corn.Example #2: Fahrenheit 451 (By Ray Bradbury)There are many instances of rebuttal in Ray Bradbury's novel Fahrenheit 451. A very notable example is the argument between Beatty and Montag. Beatty uses quotes from prominent intellectuals and authors, including Alexander Pope and Sir Philip Sidney. Beatty, thereby, makes an argument that books are just a source of debate and controversy, because we often see whatever mentioned in one book is contradicted in another. This situation becomes ironic as Beatty's job is to burn the outlawed books, and he is skillful and well informed of literary works. With it, he is also capable of debating and arguing based on literary knowledge.Example #3: Editorial Rebuttal in The Washington Post (By Eugene Joseph Dionne) Eugene Joseph Dionne, an editorial writer, provides a good instance of rebuttal in The Washington Post. Before the 2003 Iraqi invasion, some people were of the opinion that those who opposed this invasion were unpatriotic, because in this way they would oppose the American president. Dionne had rejected this suggestion, arguing that, if this was the case, "then Abraham Lincoln was an unpatriotic appeaser for opposing the Mexican War as a young congressman in the 1840s." Dionne's counter-argument is a complete rebuttal intended to show a flaw in the original argument.Example #4: Speech on 50th Anniversary Commemoration of Bloody Sunday in Selma (By President Barack Obama)"For we were born of change. We broke the old aristocracies, declaring ourselves entitled not by bloodline, but endowed by our Creator with certain unalienable rights. We secure our rights and responsibilities through a system of self-government, of and by and for the people. That's why we argue and fight with so much passion and conviction, because we know our efforts matter. We know America is what we make of it."Many critics interpret this speech of President Obama as a finely veiled rebuttal or an argument for conservative critics such as Rudy Giuliani, ex New York City Mayor, who claimed President Obama "doesn't love America." While some others believe that Obama's verbal attack is on Congress, because it was not renewing the Voting Rights Act of 1965.Function of RebuttalThe purpose of using rebuttal is to prove another argument as erroneous and false. It is very common in literature, public affairs, law, and politics, where opponents put forward statements to negate or refute specific arguments against them. In law, rebuttal requires specific rules. The party using rebuttal evidence must confine it solely to the main subject of evidence being rebutted. Whereas, in literary works and politics, rebuttals help writers to defend their points of view, as well as make positive criticisms through argumentation.

Folklore

Folklore is a collection of fictional stories about animals and people, of cultural myths, jokes, songs, tales, and even quotes. It is a description of culture, which has been passed down verbally from generation to generation, though many are now in written form. Folklore is also known as "folk literature," or "oral traditions." Folklore depicts the way main characters manage their everyday life events, including conflicts or crises. Simply, folk literature is about individual experiences from a particular society. The study of folk tradition and knowledge is called folkloristics. Although some folklores depict universal truths, unfounded beliefs and superstitions are also basic elements of folklore tradition.Types of FolkloreFollowing are the major forms of folklore:Folk songFolk talesFairy talesTall talesBalladsFolk dramasProverbs, charms, and riddlesUse of Folklore by ChildrenExamples of Folklore in Literature Example #1: Rudyard KiplingRudyard Kipling was keenly interested in folklore, as he has written many English works based on folklore such as, Rewards and Fairies and Puck of Pook's Hill. His experiences in Indian environment have led him to create several works about Indian themes and tradition. Since Kipling has lived a great deal of life in Indian regions, he was much familiar with the Indian languages.Kipling's popular work, The Jungle Book, consists of plenty of stories about traditional folktales. He also has Indian themes in his work, Just So Stories, in which he has given many characters recognizable names related to Indian languages. Helen Bannerman has also penned an Indian themed folktale, Little Black Sambo, during the same period.Example #2: Patrick HenryPatrick Henry was a politician, attorney and planter, who gained popularity as an orator when Americans were struggling for independence. He is well known for his speech in the House of Burgesses in 1775 in the church of Saint Joseph. The House was undecided about whether they need to mobilize and take military action against encroaching military forces of England. Henry gave his arguments in favor of American forces' mobilization. After forty-two years, William Wirt, Henry's first biographer, working from different oral histories and stories, reconstructed the sayings of Henry, outlining the folk traditions he inherited and passed on.Example #3: A. K. Ramanujan A. K. Ramanujan has written a lot about context sensitivity as a theme in many cultural essays, classical poetry, and Indian folklore. For example, in his works Three Hundred Ramayanas, and Where Mirrors are Windows, he talks about intertextual quality of written and oral Indian literature. His popular essay, Where Mirrors Are Windows: Toward an Anthology of Reflections, and commentaries done on Indian folktales, including Oral Tales from Twenty Indian Languages, and The Interior Landscape: Love Poems from a Classical Tamil Anthology, present perfect examples of Indian folk literature studies.Example #4: Alan GarnerAlan Garner is a renowned English novelist popular for writing fantasy tales and retellings of traditional English folk tales. His works are mainly rooted in history, landscape, and folklore of his native country Cheshire. One of such children's novels is, The Weirdstone of Brisingamen: A Tale of Alderley, which took a local legend from The Wizard of the Edge, and described landscapes and folklore of neighboring Alderley Edge, where Alan had grown up. The novel is set in Alderley Edge in Cheshire and Macclesfield. This is a very good example of the use of folktales in literature.Function of FolkloreThe main purpose of folklore is to convey a moral lesson and present useful information and everyday life lessons in an easy way for the common people to understand. Folk tales sugarcoat the lessons of hard life in order to give the audience pointers about how they should behave. It is one of the best mediums to pass on living culture or traditions to future generations.Currently, many forms of folk literature have been transformed into books and manuscripts, which we see in the forms of novels, histories, dramas, stories, lyric poems, and sermons. Folk literature is, however, not merely a carrier of cultural values; rather, it is also an expression of self-reflection. It serves as a platform to hold high moral ground without any relevance to present day reality. Instead, writers use it as a commentary or satire on current political and social reality. In the modern academic world, folklores and folktales are studied to understand ancient literature and civilizations.

Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing is a literary device in which a writer gives an advance hint of what is to come later in the story. Foreshadowing often appears at the beginning of a story, or a chapter, and helps the reader develop expectations about the coming events in a story. There are various ways to create foreshadowing. A writer may use character dialogues to hint at what may occur in the future. In addition, any event or action in the story may throw a hint to the readers about future events or actions. Even a title of a work or a chapter title can act as a clue that suggests what is going to happen. Foreshadowing in fiction creates an atmosphere of suspense in a story, so that the readers are interested to know more.Short Examples of ForeshadowingThe final graveyard flower is blooming, and its smell drifts through their house, speaking gently the names of their dead.(Foreshadows death)The evening was still. Suddenly, a cool breeze started blowing and made a windy night.(Foreshadows thunderstorm)The most awful thing happened on a stormy evening,The battle between good and evil started.(Foreshadows danger)Mary pulled back the curtains and saw some magpies sitting on the wall.(Foreshadows gossip)They thought there would not be more bodies; however, they could not believe the thought.(Foreshadows murder)An old man opens his drawer to find a magnifying glass, and sees a revolver.(Foreshadows warning)In the middle of the night, the father hears the back door opening. He rushes to check on his kids, but a masked intruder is blocking the way with a knife.(Foreshadows threat)Rainbow sparks,With shining lights.(Foreshadows optimism)Inhale fresh air, exhale bad breath.(Foreshadows new ideas)From the window, the gusts look so furious, the roofs of high buildings are stripped off, and the trees are torn up in the city.(Foreshadows someone's angst)Michael sees his own face under Donavan's mask.(Foreshadows Donavan is his father)They have made up their minds to remove an evil eye forever.(Foreshadows harm to an evil character)I observed devices,The symbols in the booksTo indicate the written future.(Foreshadows writer)As the twilight colors blushThe eyes of the night arouse.(Foreshadows night)The same old thinking and the same old results.(Foreshadows change)Foreshadowing Examples in Literature Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By Robert Francis)Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet is rich with foreshadowing examples, one of which is the following lines from Act 2, Scene 2:"Life were better ended by their hate,Than death prorogued, wanting of thy love"In the balcony scene, Juliet is concerned about Romeo's safety as she fears her kinsmen may catch him. Romeo says, in the above lines, that he would rather have her love and die sooner, than not obtain her love and die later. Eventually, he gets her love and dies for her love, too.Example #2: Great Expectations (By Charles Dickens)Charles Dickens in Great Expectations uses a description of weather in Chapter 39 to foreshadow the momentous changes in the life of a character named Pip:"Stormy and wet, stormy and wet; and mud, mud, mud, deep in all the streets. Day after day, a vast heavy veil had been driving over London from the East, and it drove still, as if in the East there were an Eternity of cloud and wind. So furious had been the gusts, that high buildings in town had had the lead stripped off their roofs; and in the country, trees had been torn up, and sails of windmills carried away; and gloomy accounts had come in from the coast, of shipwreck and death. Violent blasts of rain had accompanied these rages of wind, and the day just closed as I sat down to read had been the worst of all."The above lines are Pip's observation on the weather before Magwitch's arrival. It is a foreshadowing as well as a representation of Pip's inner chaos. Just as the angry winds leave a trail of destruction in London, Magwitch's disclosure opens a path of destruction in Pip's life.Example #3: Da Vinci Code (By Dan Brown) Examples of foreshadowing are also found in mystery and detective stories. The kind of foreshadowing usually found in mystery or detective novels is referred to as "Red-Herring" - this is a misleading clue that distracts readers by giving them wrong hints about future events.For example, the character of Bishop Aringarosa in Da Vinci Code, by Dan Brown, is shown to act in such a suspicious way that the readers are bound to suspect him to be the mastermind of the whole conspiracy in the church. His mysterious actions seemingly foreshadow the exposure of his crime in a later part of the narrative, but it is later revealed that he was innocent and not involved in any secret action. Characters like Bishop Aringarosa contribute to the mystery and suspense of the novel.Example #4: Of Mice and Men (By John Steinbeck)In John Steinbeck's novel Of Mice and Men, George killing Candy's dog foreshadows George killing Lennie, because Lennie is identical to the dog. Even the nature of the death of the dog was the same as Lennie's, as both were shot in the back of the head. He chooses to kill Lennie himself in order to save him from being killed by a stranger.Example #5: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By S. T. Coleridge)"Her lips were red, her looks were free ...Who thicks man's blood with cold."This part is the climax of ship's misfortune, depicted in a supernatural way. The arrival of a ghostly ship with ghosts as "Life-in-Death" turns the mariners lose hope and make them scared to death. This indirectly foreshadows the death of the entire crew and builds anticipation for the readers what is about to happen next.Example #6: The Highwayman (By Alfred Noyes)"The wind was a torrent of darkness among the gusty trees...Riding—riding—The highwayman came riding, up to the old inn-door."The above lines are entirely filled with melancholic tone and foreshadowing. The very first line calls wind "a torrent of darkness," where darkness is a foreshadowing danger. The depiction of night and weather as 'darkness' foretells the coming of a dark tale.Example #7: The Tide Rises, The Tide Falls (By Henry Wadsworth Longfellow)"The tide rises, the tide falls,The twilight darkens, the curlew call ...And the tide rises, the tide falls."The title of the poem foreshadows the entire poem, how nature and life start and end. It is about the tides, their motions, and the circle of life. The darkness and ups and downs of tides foretell that the travelers would never return.Example #8: David (By Earle Birney)"Away from the wind, and landed in gentian and saxifrageSpilled on the moss ...Cliff and splashed unseen into mist in the shadows."This excerpt gives descriptions of "darkening firs," "sudden whirring of water," and "splashed unseen," foretelling a pending danger and some disaster about to happen.Function of ForeshadowingGenerally, the function of foreshadowing is to build anticipation in the minds of readers about what might happen next, thus adding dramatic tension to a story. It is deliberately employed to create suspense in mystery novels, usually by giving false clues - or red herrings - to distract readers. Moreover, foreshadowing can make extraordinary and bizarre events appear credible, as the events are predicted beforehand so that readers are mentally prepared for them.

Scansion

In literature, scansion means to divide the poetry or a poetic form into feet by pointing out different syllables based on their lengths. Scansion is also known as "scanning," which is, in fact, a description of rhythms of poetry through break up of its lines or verses into feet, pointing the locations of accented and unaccented syllables, working out on meter, as well as counting the syllables. Examples of Scansion in LiteratureExample #1: Hope is the Thing With Feathers (By Emily Dickinson)Hope is the thing with feathersThat perches in the soul,And sings the tune without the words,And never stops at all ...In this example, strong or stressed syllables are underlined. The stressed and unstressed pattern of the syllables show that the poem has used iambic tetrameter with alternating iambic trimeter, while the rhyme scheme used is ABAB.Example #2: Twelfth Night (by William Shakespeare)If music be the food of love, play on ...That strain again! it had a dying fall:These lines contained unstressed syllables followed by stressed syllables, which are underlined. This pattern repeats five times, which means it is iambic pentameter with un-rhyming lines known as blank verse.Example #3: Anyone Lived in a Pretty How Town (by E.E Cumming) anyone lived in a pretty how town(with up so floating many bells down)spring summer autumn winterhe sang his didn't he danced his did.Though first two lines rhyme in this example. However, there is no strict meter, as it is a free verse poem. You can see the first, second and fourth lines have used iambic tetrameter, while the third line has used tetrameter.Example #4: The Raven (by Edgar Allan Poe)Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary,Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore,While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door."tis some visiter," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door—Only this, and nothing more."The metrical pattern of this stanza is trochaic octameter in which eight stressed syllables are followed by eight unstressed syllables. Each line uses eight pairs of syllables. Total there are sixteen syllables. The rhyme scheme of this stanza is ABCBB.Example #5: The Charge of the Light Brigade (by Alfred Lord Tennyson)Cannon to right of them,Cannon to left of them,Cannon in front of themVolley'd and thunder'd;This is a good example of dactylic dimeter with two feet in each line. Dactylic foot uses a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables. This stressed syllable appears at the beginning and in the middle of the lines. The rhyme scheme of this poem is irregular and unpredictable, and in this stanza it is AAAB.Example #6: The Bounty (by Derek Walcott)if I confess it, and I confess it. The trickle of undergroundsprings, the babble of swollen gulches under drenched ferns,loosening the grip of their roots, till their hairy clods...Walcott has used mixed metrical pattern in this poem. In this example, the first two lines are using trochaic heptameter, while the final line is using dactylic tetrameter. In the first line, you can notice the use of caesura in the middle; it breaks the monotony and creates a dramatic effect.Example #7: Paradise Lost (by John Milton)From what highth fal'n, so much the stronger provdHe with his Thunder: and till then who knewThe force of those dire Arms? yet not for thoseNor what the Potent Victor in his rage...This is the famous example of a blank verse, using unrhyming lines with iambic pentameter (ten syllables in a line and five are stressed).Function of Scansion Scansion demonstrates variation and regularity in poetry. It also proves very helpful in determining the natural rhythm of a free and blank verse. Moreover, it makes a poem pleasurable as well as more meaningful by marking the stressed and unstressed syllables. In fact, scansion explains how rhythm contributes to beauty, significance and meaning of a poem.

Active Voice

In grammar, an active voice is a type of a clause or sentence in which a subject performs an action and expresses it through its representative verb. To simply put it, when a subject performs an action directly, it is in active voice. It then uses transitive verb to show the action.Style guides usually encourage the use of active voice, because it is clear and direct. For example, "Some customers prefer mulled ale. They keep their mugs on the hob until the ale gets as hot as coffee. A sluggish cat named Minnie sleeps in a scuttle beside the stove" (The Old House at Home, by Joseph Mitchell). All of these sentences are in active voice, as the verbs "refer," "keep," "get" and "sleep" are in active mode.Examples of Active Voice in LiteratureExample #1: Harold and Maud (by Colin Higgins)"You know, at one time, I used to break into pet shops to liberate the canaries. But I decided that was an idea way before its time. Zoos are full, prisons are overflowing. Oh my, how the world still dearly loves a cage."Active voice in these example sentences is underlined. The subject "I" is performing an action through the verbs "break" and "decided." The subject "world" is performing an action through the verb "loves." All the sentences are in active voice.Example #2: Hillary's Once in a Lifetime (by Kathleen Parker)"Finally, Hillary swept in and moved down a line of huggers toward a raised platform centered in the room...Her positioning meant that she had to keep turning in order to hug back. Around and around and around she turned, 360 degrees, over and over, her arms outstretched in perpetual greeting, like a jewel-box ballerina whose battery has run low."Here the subject "Hillary" is taking action through the verbs "swept in," "moved down," "had," "turned," and "has run." The verbs are in active mode, the reason that all sentences are in active voice.Example #3: Mr. Personality (by Mark Singer) "Seven days a week, Paul Schimmel ventures into the subway with his clarinet. In the IND station at Sixth Avenue and Forty-second Street one recent afternoon, he paid his fare with a free pass."The use of active voice has added directness to this passage. The subject is "Paul Schimmel," who is doing "ventures," and has "paid" fare.Example #4: Heart of Darkness (by Colin Higgins)"I looked at him, lost in astonishment...'Ah, he talked to you of love!' I said, much amused. 'It isn't what you think,' he cried, almost passionately. 'It was in general.' "He threw his arms up...He had his second illness then. Afterwards I had to keep out of the way; but I didn't mind. He was living for the most part in those villages on the lake. When he came down to the river, sometimes he would take to me, and sometimes it was better for me to be careful. This man suffered too much."In this passage, the author has written all of the sentences in active voice, which are direct and clear in meaning. The verbs of active voice include "looked," "talked," "think," "threw," "had," "living," "came down," and "suffered."Example #5: The Catcher in the Rye (by J.D. Salinger)"If you really want to hear about it, the first thing you'll probably want to know is where I was born, and what my lousy childhood was like... They're nice and all—I'm not saying that - but they're also touchy as hell. Besides, I'm not going to tell you my whole goddam autobiography or anything. I'll just tell you about this madman stuff that happened to me around last Christmas..."In this excerpt, the author has used the verbs "hear," "want," "saying," "going," and "tell" in active voice.Function of Active Voice Active voice plays an important role in creative writing and business reports because these types of writings need to be to the point, clear, and direct. It adds interest and helps grab attention of the readers. Not only does it maintain audience's interest, it also improves the quality of a written work. Active voice gives energy and life to a sentence, as it is less wordy and consequently less difficult. In addition, active voice maintains focus and attention of the readers on a single point.

Litotes

Litotes, derived from a Greek word meaning "simple," is a figure of speech that employs an understatement by using double negatives or, in other words, a positive statement expressed by negating its opposite expressions. For example, using the expression "not too bad" for "very good" is an understatement, as well as a double negative statement that confirms a positive idea by negating the opposite (meaning it's good, by saying it's not bad). Similarly, saying "She is not a beauty queen," means she is ugly, or saying "I am not as young as I used to be," in order to avoid saying I am old. Litotes, therefore, is an intentional use of understatement that renders an ironic effect.Common Litotes ExamplesIn everyday life, it is common to experience litotes in conversations, though not many people are aware of this term and its usage. Below are a few examples of litotes from daily conversations:They do not seem the happiest couple around.The ice cream was not too bad.New York is not an ordinary city.Your comments on politics are not useless.You are not as young as you used to be.I cannot disagree with your point of view.William Shakespeare was not a bad playwright at all.He is not the cleverest person I have ever met.She is not unlike her mother.Ken Adams is not an ordinary manA million dollars is no small amount.You are not doing badly at all.Your apartment is not unclean.Interestingly, the use of understatement in the above litotes examples adds emphasis to the ideas, rather than decreasing their importance. This is due to the ironic effect produced by the understatement.Examples of Litotes in Literature In literature, writers and poets use this type of figure of speech in their texts in order to vividly communicate novel ideas to readers.Example #1: A Tale of a Tub (By Jonathan Swift)"I am not unaware how the productions of the Grub Street brotherhood have of late years fallen under many prejudices."Now just see how Swift has used double negatives to emphasize the point that he is totally aware of it. The irony is that he is aware, but he is saying it as if he is unaware that he is not.Example #2: Fire and Ice (By Robert Frost)"Some say the world will end in fire,Some say in ice.From what I've tasted of desireI hold with those who favor fire.But if I had to perish twice,I think I know enough of hateTo say that for destruction iceIs also greatAnd would suffice."If you read this short piece by Robert Frost very carefully, you'll see that calling the destruction caused by ice "great" is balanced by an opposing statement "would suffice," is an understatement.Example #3: Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: an American Slave (By Frederick Douglass)"Indeed, it is not uncommon for slaves even to fall out and quarrel among themselves about the relative goodness of their masters, each contending for the superior goodness of his own over that of the others."Mr. Douglass was an African-American social reformer and a writer. He has effectively used litotes to stress his point that even slaves used to seek dominance over other slaves by holding out that their respective masters were much better than those of the other slaves.Function of LitotesLitotes uses ironic understatement in order to emphasize an idea or situation, rather than minimizing its importance. It rather discovers a unique way to attract people's attention to an idea, and that is by ignoring it.J.R. Bergmann, in his book Talk at Work: Interaction in Institutional Settings, talks about litotes in the following words:"I want to claim that the rhetorical figure litotes is one of those methods which are used to talk about an object in a discreet way. It clearly locates an object for the recipient, but it avoids naming it directly."This is the best that has ever been said about litotes - that to ignore an object and still talk about it in a negative way is the best way to make it appear important and prominent.

Lyric

Lyric is a collection of verses and choruses, making up a complete song, or a short and non-narrative poem. A lyric uses a single speaker, who expresses personal emotions or thoughts. Lyrical poems, which are often popular for their musical quality and rhythm, are pleasing to the ear, and are easily put to music. The term lyric originates from the Greek word "lyre," which is an instrument used by the Grecians to play when reading a poem. Lyrical poets demonstrate specific moods and emotions through words. Such moods express a range of emotions, from extreme to nebulous, about life, love, death, or other experiences of life. Read on to learn more about lyric in literature.Types of LyricThere are several types of lyric used in poems such as given below:ElegyAn elegy is a mournful, sad, or melancholic poem or a song that expresses sorrow for someone who has bee lost, or died. Originally, it followed a structure using a meter alternating six foot and five foot lines. However, modern elegies do not follow such a pattern, though the mood of the poem remains the same.OdeAn ode is a lyric poem that expresses intense feelings, such as love, respect, or praise for someone or something. Like an elegy, an ode does not follow any strict format or structure, though it uses refrains or repeated lines. It is usually longer than other lyrical forms, and focuses on positive moods of life.SonnetA sonnet uses fourteen lines, and follows iambic pentameter with five pairs of accented and unaccented syllables. The structure of a sonnet, with predetermined syllables and rhyme scheme, makes it flow off the tongues of readers in way similar way to a on song on the radio.Dramatic MonologueA dramatic monologue has theatrical quality, which means that the poem portrays a solitary speaker communing with the audience, without any dialogue coming from other characters. Usually, the speaker talks to a specific person in the poem.Occasional PoetryPoets write occasional poetry for specific occasions such as weddings, anniversaries, birthdays, victories, and dedications, such as John Dryden's "Annus Mirabilis," and Edmund Spencer's "Epithalamion."Examples of Lyric in Literature Example #1: Italian Sonnet (by James DeFord)"Turn back the heart you've turned awayGive back your kissing breathLeave not my love as you have leftThe broken hearts of yesterdayBut wait, be still, don't lose this way...Accept my love, live for today."This is an example of a sonnet, using fourteen lines with a metrical pattern of iambic pentameter. The poem is about feelings of love for a beloved. It tells how it is worth staying with one another instead of leaving.Example #2: Ode to the West Wind (by Percy Bysshe Shelley)"Scatter, as from an unextinguish'd hearthAshes and sparks, my words among mankind!Be through my lips to unawaken'd earthThe trumpet of a prophecy! O Wind,If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?"This excerpt from an ode demonstrates lyric This poem has fourteen lines, and is written in iambic pentameter. Each stanza is divided into four tercets followed by a couplet. The rhyme scheme form is terza rima. The mood has a positive lyrical quality.Example #3: My Last Duchess (by Robert Browning) "That's my last Duchess painted on the wall,Looking as if she were alive. I callThat piece a wonder, now; Fra Pandolf's handsWorked busily a day, and there she stands..."Fra Pandolf" by design, for never readStrangers like you that pictured countenance,"This poem is a dramatic monologue in which the Duke shows a portrait of his former wife to the emissary through his point of view. In so doing, he reveals his position, his jealous temperament, and excessive pride. This monologue also has a lyrical quality found in its rhyme scheme.Example #4: O Captain! My Captain (by Walt Whitman)"'O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done,The ship has weather'd every rack,the prize we sought is won,The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting,While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring;But O heart! heart! heart!"This is the first stanza of Whitman's famous elegy. Notice its mood, which is somber, and filled with intense sadness. Still, the words are giving melodic flow due to lyrical quality.FunctionA lyrical poet addresses his audience directly by portraying their state of mind or emotions. That is why a lyrical poem expresses personal emotions of the poet. The themes of lyrical poems are also emotional and lofty, enabling the readers to look into the life of things deeply. That is why such poems have universal appeal, because readers can relate their feelings with the poem.

Main Idea

Main Idea includes the overall message of the text that a writer intends to convey to the audience. Almost all genres of literature have one or two main ideas in them. However, the main idea in literature is not limited to one sentence or paragraph; instead, it develops and grows throughout the text. It works as the central, unifying element of the story which ties together all other elements. In this sense, it can be best defined as the dominant impression or the generic truth incorporated in the literary piece. Etymologically, the central idea is the phrase of two words 'main' and 'idea.' The meaning is clear that it is the most important thought of a text which enables the readers to understand the layered meanings of the concerned text. Examples Main Idea from LiteratureExample #1"A Red, Red Rose" by Robert Burns"O my Luve is like a red, red roseThat's newly sprung in June;O my Luve is like the melodyThat's sweetly played in tune.So fair art thou, my bonnie lass,So deep in luve am I;And I will luve thee still, my dear,Till a' the seas gang dry.Till a' the seas gang dry, my dear,And the rocks melt wi' the sun;I will love thee still, my dear,While the sands o' life shall run.And fare thee weel, my only luve!And fare thee weel awhile!And I will come again, my luve,Though it were ten thousand mile."This is one of the famous poems of Robert Burns, a renowned Scottish poet, and lyricist. The poem illustrates the intense love of the speaker for his beloved. The central idea of the poem is love, which the writer has declared in the opening lines. However, he further supports this idea by comparing his beloved with a red rose. He has also employed literary elements to make the readers understand his version of love. To him, beauty is transitory, but his love is holy and eternal. Thus, the central idea plays a great role in advancing the action of this poem.Example #2Invictus by William Ernest HenleyOut of the night that covers me,Black as the pit from pole to pole,I thank whatever gods may beFor my unconquerable soul.In the fell clutch of circumstanceI have not winced nor cried aloud.Under the bludgeonings of chanceMy head is bloody, but unbowed.Beyond this place of wrath and tearsLooms but the Horror of the shade,And yet the menace of the yearsFinds and shall find me unafraid.It matters not how strait the gate,How charged with punishments the scroll,I am the master of my fate,I am the captain of my soul.The poem, having an artistic expression, was composed to illustrate the courageous stance of a person in unfortunate circumstances. The main idea of the poem is the resilience of human spirit in the face of miseries and challenges of life. Despite having troubles and adverse circumstances, the speaker holds his spirit high and face the difficult time of his life bravely. His optimism and ability to overcome the adversity makes him stronger as he calls himself the master of his fate. He is not afraid of the problems and, this belief enables him to overcome any obstacle that comes to his way. Therefore, courage makes up the main idea of the poem.Example #3 SCENE I. A desert place. (Macbeth by William Shakespeare, Act I, Scene I)Thunder and lightning. Enter three WitchesFirst WitchWhen shall we three meet againIn thunder, lightning, or in rain?Second WitchWhen the hurlyburly's done,When the battle's lost and won.Third WitchThat will be ere the set of sun.First WitchWhere the place?Second WitchUpon the heath.Third WitchThere to meet with Macbeth.First WitchI come, Graymalkin!Second WitchPaddock calls.Third WitchAnon.ALLFair is foul, and foul is fair:Hover through the fog and filthy air.This extract has been taken from one of the famous plays of Shakespeare, Macbeth. This is the opening scene of Macbeth in which three witches discuss their next meeting point, where they plan to see Macbeth. This opening scene not only sets the tone of the play but also highlights the recurring motif of the supernatural creatures. The audience immediately gets an idea that the text is about the evil and foul play.Main Idea Meaning and Function Main idea serves as the pause for the audience. It provides them an opportunity to understand the writer's intention or the reason for his writing. It also makes them recognize and appreciate the deeper meanings of the texts. The writers also use it as a tool that enables them to project their inner thoughts and persuade the readers. Moreover, some of the academic writings unconsciously instill main ideas into the subconscious of the readers with ulterior motives which can be good or bad.

Malapropism

Malapropism finds its origins in the French phrase mal a propos, which means "inappropriate." It is the use of an incorrect word in place of a similar-sounding word, which results in a nonsensical and humorous expression. The word malapropism comes from "Mrs. Malaprop," a character in Sheridan's comedy The Rivals, who has a habit of replacing words with incorrect and absurd utterances, producing a humorous effect. A miss-speech is considered malapropism when it sounds similar to the word it replaces, but has an entirely different meaning. For instance, replacing acute with obtuse is not a malapropism because the words have contrasting meanings, but do not sound similar.Using obtuse for abstruse, on the other hand, is a malapropism, as there is a difference in meanings, and both words sound similar. These characteristics makes malapropism different from other errors in speech, such as eggcorns and spoonerisms.Common Malapropism ExamplesMalapropism is a common phenomenon in our daily life. We find some hilarious Malapropism examples being quoted in the media.Example #1The magazine New Scientist reports one of its employees calling his colleague "a suppository (i.e. repository) of knowledge." The magazine further reports the worker apologized for his "Miss Marple-ism (i.e. Malapropism)."Example #2Richard J. Daley, the former mayor of Chicago, is said to have called a "tandem bicycle" a "tantrum bicycle," and to also have incorrectly used the phrase "Alcoholics Unanimous," rather than "Alcoholics Anonymous."Example #3 Bertie Ahern, the former Irish Taoiseach, is said to have given a warning to his country against "upsetting the apple tart (i.e., apple cart) of his country's economic success".More Common Malapropism ExamplesCheer up. I predicate (predict) a final victory.His capacity for hard liquor is incredulous (incredible).This does not portend (pretend) to be a great work of art.Fortuitously (fortunately) for her, she won the sweepstakes.Examples of Malapropism in Literature In literature, malapropism is employed to create humorous effect.Example #1: The Rivals (By Richard Brinsley Sheridan)In his novel, The Rivals, Richard Sheridan introduces a character, Mrs. Malaprop, who habitually uses words that mean quite the opposite to the words she intends to use, but which have similar sounds to the words she replaces. It becomes a great source of humorous effect in the play. For example, in Act III, Scene 3, she tells Captain Absolute:"Sure, if I reprehend anything in this world it is the use of my oracular tongue, and a nice derangement of epitaphs!"In the above passage, she comically replaces apprehend with reprehend, vernacular with oracular, arrangement with derangement, and epithets with epitaph.Some other funny examples of malapropism in the same play include "... illiterate (obliterate) him quite from your memory," and "... she's as headstrong as an allegory (alligator)."Example #2: Much Ado About Nothing (By William Shakespeare)William Shakespeare uses malapropism in his plays as well. Look at the following example of malapropism uttered by Constable Dogberry in Act III, Scene 5 of Much Ado About Nothing:"Our watch, sir, have indeed comprehended two auspicious persons."Notice the use of comprehended for apprehended, and auspicious for suspicious.Similarly, an instance of malapropism can be observed in Act I, Scene 3 of Twelfth Night. Sir Toby Belch says:"By this hand, they are scoundrels and subtractorsthat say so of him. Who are they?"The malapropism here is "subtractors," which should have been "detractors." Yet another example comes from the same character in Act I, Scene 5 of the same play:OLIVIA: "Cousin, cousin, how have you come so early by thislethargy?"SIR TOBY BELCH: "Lechery! I defy lechery."Here, the use of lechery" instead of lethargy is a malapropism.Example #3: Huckleberry Finn (By Mark Twain)In Chapter 33 of Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn, Aunt Sally can be spotted using a malapropism. She says:"I was most putrified with astonishment,"Here, the use of the word putrified is a malapropism, as it seems she was thinking of petrified.Function of MalapropismAlthough it is considered an error in speech, malapropism is a great source of humor in both everyday life and literature. In daily life, malapropisms are often unintentional, but writers introduce malapropism in their literary works intentionally to produce comic effect. It ensures the attention of the readers, as it inserts an extra element of interest in a literary piece. This is the reason why the characters using hilarious malapropisms are often well-known.

Melodrama

Melodrama is a subgenre of drama, which is an exaggerated form of this genre. Melodramas deal with sensational and romantic topics that appeal to the emotions of the common audience. Originally, it made use of melody and music, while modern melodramas may not contain any music at all. In fact, a melodrama gives preference to a detailed characterization where characters are simply drawn, one-dimensional, or stereotyped. Typically, melodrama uses stock characters including a heroes, heroines, and villains. Examples of Melodrama in LiteratureExample #1: Still Life, Brief Encounter (By Noel Coward)Noel Coward's heartbreaking drama Still Life, Brief Encounter, tells the story of two people who seemed destined to be unhappy. In the film, a leading role and married woman, Laura Jesson, encounters a doctor, Alec Harvey, in a train station. They decide to meet once in a week at the same station. Soon they begin to feel delighted in each other's company and share everything. Eventually they come to realize that they are in love with each other. Their realization, however, leads to a tragic notion that they cannot leave their families, which finally ends up in unrequited love, with their lives doomed into despondency.Example #2: Mildred Pierce (By James M. Cain)A blend of melodrama and film noir, Mildred Pierce, is based on James M. Cain's novel of the same title. The story is about a struggling waitress, Mildred, who wishes to provide a better life to her daughters than she had, after separating from her husband. For this, she takes the help of a real estate agent, after which she becomes the owner of a restaurant.Mildred tries to make her older daughter tie the knot with a formerly wealthy man, Monte Beragon, to improve her financial position and win back her alienated daughter Vera. Instead, Vera starts enjoying the playboy lifestyle of Monte, and drains her mother's finances. This leads to Mildred's financial ruin, and the murder of Monte. Consequently, Vera goes to jail. This shows the type of melodrama created to impact the audience.Example #3: Kitty Foyle (By Christopher Morley) Christopher Morley's novel, Kitty Foyle, has been adapted to film, in which the author narrates the story in the form of a melodrama. The film stars Kitty as a saleswoman who desires to make her living on her own. Nevertheless, she marries Wyn Strafford, then due to class differences, the couple separates very soon. Kitty then engages in a relationship with a doctor, Mark Eisen, but their relationship could not be successful. She again decides to marry Wyn when he comes back. Though the class difference remains, he wishes to live with Kitty. Kitty suffers a lot and returns to her sales job. Thus, the audience sees many ups and downs in Kitty's life through this classic melodrama.Example #4: Now Voyager (By Olive Higgins Prouty)Based on the novel Now Voyager, by Olive Higgins Prouty, this melodrama tells the story of a woman, Charlotte Vale, who suffers a lifetime repression due to her domineering mother, who finally breaks her free at the request of Charlotte's psychiatrist. Thus, she takes a voyage where she encounters Jerry Durrance, a loyal father and loveless husband, whose wife is manipulative and jealous. Charlotte pulls back Jerry's emotionally disturbed daughter from the brink. She then enters into another relationship, but could not push Jerry out of her mind. By the end, though Charlotte could not get her desired man, she becomes self-assured and more confident.Example #5: Wuthering Heights (By Emily Bronte)Film director William Wyler adapted Emily Bronte's classic and popular novel Wuthering Heights into a film. The novel is a sweeping romantic melodrama in which love and class division are destined to become a tragedy. The film stars Heathcliff as an orphan, who is taken into a wealthy family where he falls in love with Cathy, his foster sister.Though Cathy also feels the same for him, she nevertheless marries a wealthy neighbor, leaving Heathcliff with no choice. Returning as a wealthy man after some years, the sparks begin to fly again for Cathy, and a vengeful Heathcliff marries Geraldine Fitzgerald, sister of Cathy's husband, in order to arouse her jealousy. By the end, Catherine dies, and Heathcliff follows her as he could not brook this loss any more.Function of Melodrama Melodrama is an exaggerated form of drama, where authors enhance the storylines in order to tug the heartstrings of the audience. Typically, these types of dramas focus on sensational plots that revolve around tragedy, unrequited love, loss, or heightened emotion; featuring long-suffering protagonists, especially females, attempting in vain to overcome impossible odds. Its purpose is to play on the feelings and emotions of the audience. We see the use of melodramatic plots more often in films, theater, television, radio, cartoons, and comics.

Motif

Motif is an object or idea that repeats itself throughout a literary work. Motif and ThemeIn a literary work, a motif can be seen as an image, sound, action, or other figure that has a symbolic significance, and contributes toward the development of a theme. Motif and theme are linked in a literary work, but there is a difference between them. In a literary piece, a motif is a recurrent image, idea, or symbol that develops or explains a theme, while a theme is a central idea or message.Motif and Symbol Sometimes, examples of motif are mistakenly identified as examples of symbols. Symbols are images, ideas, sounds, or words that represent something else, and help to understand an idea or a thing. Motifs, on the other hand, are images, ideas, sounds, or words that help to explain the central idea of a literary work - the theme. Moreover, a symbol may appear once or twice in a literary work, whereas a motif is a recurring element.Themes, Motifs, and Symbols in Dickens' A Tale of Two CitiesLet us try to understand the difference between theme, motif, and symbol by analyzing a literary work. In Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities, the main plot revolves around two basic themes: the ever-present possibility of resurrection, and the necessity of sacrifice to bring about a revolution.One of the motif examples in the novel that develops these themes is the presence of Doubles: (1) the action takes place in two cities; (2) we find two opposed doubles in the form of the female characters Lucie and Madame Defarge. We also see recurrent images of darkness in the narrative, which add to the gloomy atmosphere.Another motif is that of imprisonment, as each and every character struggles against some kind of imprisonment. Finally, there are plenty of symbols in the narrative as well. The broken wine cask is a symbol of people's hunger; Madame Defarge knitting is a symbol of revenge, and Marquis is a character that stands for social disorder.Examples of Motif in LiteratureExample #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)In Shakespeare's Hamlet, we find a recurring motif of incest, accompanied by incestuous desires of some characters. Laertes speaks to his sister Ophelia in a way that is sexually explicit. Hamlet's obsession with Gertrude's sexual life with Claudius has an underlying tone of incestuous desire.There is also a motif of hatred for women that Hamlet experiences in his relationship with Gertrude and Ophelia. Hamlet expresses his disgust for women in Scene 2 of Act I, as he says:"Frailty, thy name is woman"Example #2: The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (By Mark Twain)In Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, we see several motifs that support the central idea of the narrative. The motif of childhood gives the novel a lighter tone, and makes it enjoyable to read despite its grave central ideas of slavery and racism. Both Huck and Tom are young and flexible enough to undergo a moral education, and thus are more open-minded than adults. Another obvious motif in the narrative is superstition. Jim appears silly to believe in all sorts of signs and omens, but interestingly predicts the coming event.Example #3: Heart of Darkness (By Joseph Conrad) Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness has a motif of observation and eavesdropping. Marlow, the protagonist, gets information about the world by either observing his surroundings or listening to the conversations of others. Similarly, there is another evident motif of comparison between the exterior and the interior. Initially, Marlow is a person who keenly observes things and people from the surface, but as he continues his journey into the heart of darkness, he gains an insight into his deeper nature, as well as that of others.Example #4: To Kill a Mocking Bird (By Harper Lee)The central idea of the co-existence of good and evil in Harper Lee's To Kill a Mocking Bird is supported by several motifs. Lee strengthens the atmosphere by a motif of Gothic details, in recurrent images of gloomy and haunted settings, supernatural events, and a full moon. Another motif in the narrative is the small town life of Maycomb, which depicts goodness and pleasantness in life.Function of MotifAlong with presenting a prevailing theme, writers include several motifs in their literary works as reinforcements. Motifs contribute in developing the major theme of a literary work, and help readers to comprehend the underlying messages that writers intend to communicate to them.

Myth

Myth is a legendary or a traditional story that usually concerns an event or a hero, with or without using factual or real explanations. These particularly concern demigods or deities, and describes some rites, practices, and natural phenomenon. Typically, a myth involves historical events and supernatural beings. There are many types of myths, such as classic myths, religious myths, and modern myths. Characteristics of MythMyth usually features ruling gods, goddesses, deities, and heroes having god-like-qualities, but status lower than gods. Often, the daughter or son of a god (such as Percy Jackson) is fully mortal, and these characters have supernatural abilities and powers that raise them above average human beings.Myths are mostly very old, and happen to have ruled the world when science, philosophy, and technology were not very precise, as they are today. Therefore, people were unaware of certain questions, like why the sky is blue, or why night is dark, or what are the causes of earthquakes. Thus, it was myths that explained natural phenomena, and described rituals and ceremonies to the people.Examples of Myth in Literature Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)Roman and Greek myths, though originally not available in English, have deeply influenced English works. During the times of the ancient Greeks, they had a belief that some invisible gods, such as Zeus, had created this world. We read in such Greek stories that passions for humans controlled the gods, and hence gods fought for them. Likewise, Romans had beliefs in such deities.Due to mythological influences, many literary authors refer to the Greek and Roman myths in order to add meanings to their works. For instance, Shakespeare, in his play Romeo and Juliet, uses Greek mythology when Juliet cries out saying that,"Gallop apace, you fiery-footed steeds,Towards Phoebus' lodging."In Greek mythology, Phoebus was god of the sun, and here Juliet urges that god to bring him home quickly, so that night could come, and she may meet her lover Romeo.Example #2: No Second Troy (By William Butler Yeats)In another Greek myth, Greeks devastated the city of Troy in an outburst of the Trojan War, when Helen - the wife of king Menelaus - ran away with the prince of Troy. Apparently, Helen was a very beautiful woman from Greece, and was ultimately held responsible for the devastation of Troy.Yeats also tried to use this Greek mythology in his poem, No Second Troy, by creating a similarity between Helen and Maud Gonne. He also brought a similarity between the Trojan War and revolutionary and anti-British activities of the Irish. Just like Helen, Yeats blamed and held Maud responsible for creating hatred in the hearts of Irishmen, and consequently they caused destruction and bloodshed.Example #3: Paradise Lost (By John Milton) Biblical stories and myths have also played an important role in shaping English literary works. John Milton, in his poem Paradise Lost, plays out the Genesis story about the Fall of Man, and subsequent eviction, from the Garden of Eden.Both John Steinbeck and William Golding, in their respective novels, East of Eden, and Lord of the Flies, played on the same idea in which they have presented Eve as a seducer responsible for bringing sin into this world. We can clearly see this allusion in medieval literature. We also have seen that many feminist literary critics of the twentieth century have made use of this myth in their research.Example #4: The Waste Land (By T. S. Eliot)T. S. Eliot uses two underlying myths to develop the structure of his long poem The Waste Land. These myths are of the Grail Quest and the Fisher King, both of which originate from Gaelic traditions, and come to the Christian civilization. Though Eliot has not taken these myths from the Bible, both were significant for Europeans, as they incorporated them into European mythology, and these stories focused on the account of the death and resurrection of Christ.Function of MythMyths exist in every society, as they are basic elements of human culture. The main function of myths is to teach moral lessons and explain historical events. Authors of great literary works have often taken their stories and themes from myths. Myths and their mythical symbols lead to creativity in literary works. We can understand a culture more deeply, and in a much better way, by knowing and appreciating its stories, dreams, and myths. Myths came before religions, and all religious stories are, in fact, retellings of global mythical themes. Besides literature, myths also play a great role in science, psychology, and philosophy.

Narrative

Narrative is a report of related events presented to listeners or readers, in words arranged in a logical sequence. A story is taken as a synonym of narrative. A narrative, or story, is told by a narrator who may be a direct part of that experience, and he or she often shares the experience as a first-person narrator. Sometimes he or she may only observe the events as a third-person narrator, and gives his or her summation. History of Narration or StorytellingStorytelling is an essential part of human nature. Man is the only creature that tells stories, and we have been telling stories and listening to them since the time we learned to speak. Storytelling began with oral traditions, and in such forms as myths, legends, fables, anecdotes, and ballads. These were told and retold, passed down from generation to generation, and they shared the knowledge and wisdom of early people.The basic theme of various forms of story-telling were fear of natural forces, deeds of heroes, gods and goddesses, and to teach life lessons from others' experiences. Biblical stories have the primary purpose of teaching spirituality. Most biblical stories were performed in churches to convey spiritual messages to the masses.Narrative Examples in Everyday Life Modern narratives have a broader function. After a close study of famous examples of modern narrative, we see that such narratives do not merely entertain, but serve as ways to communicate writers' moral, cultural, and political perspectives.Moreover, narratives have contributed to achieving educational objectives in our everyday life. Different forms of media enable people to express and record their real life stories, and to share their knowledge and their cultural values across the world. In addition, many documentaries on television adopt a narrative technique to communicate information in an interesting way.Examples of Narrative in LiteratureExample #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell)Animal Farm, by George Orwell, is a modern narrative example known as a "political satire," which aims at expressing a writer's political views. It uses animals on a farm to describe the overthrow of the last Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, and the Communist Revolution of Russia before WWII. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the Revolution. It also describes how powerful people can change the ideology of a society.Example #2: Faerie Queen (By Edmund Spenser)Poetry written in the style of a narrative is known as "narrative verse." Faerie Queen, by Edmund Spenser, is an example of such poetry. It narrates the adventures of the Red-Cross Knight in helping Lady Una rescue her parents from the evil Dagon. On a symbolic level it describes the mission of the Holiness as helping the Truth, fight Evil, and thus regain its rightful place in human hearts.Example #3: The Withdrawing Room (By Charlotte Macleod) Charlotte Macleod's The Withdrawing Room is an example of a thriller or suspense narrative. Augustus Quiffen, a lodger at Sarah's Brownstone home, is killed by falling under the train. It seems to be an accident until Mary Smith tells Sarah that it is a murder, but she is not sure of the identity of the murderer. Sarah and Max Bittersohn investigate the matter, and find that the killer has planned the death beforehand.Example #4: Don Quixote (By Miguel de Cervantes)Don Quixote, by Miguel de Cervantes, is a parody of romance narratives, which dealt with the adventures of a valiant knight. Unlike serious romances, in Don Quixote, the narrative takes a comical turn. We laugh at how Quixote was bestowed a knighthood in his battle with the giants [windmills]. We enjoy how the knight helps the Christian king against the army of a Moorish monarch [herd of sheep]. These and the rest of the incidents of the novel are written in the style of Spanish romances of the 16th century, in order to mock the idealism of knights in the contemporary romances.Function of NarrativeStorytelling and listening to stories are part of human instinct. Therefore, writers employ narrative techniques in their works to attract readership. The readers are not only entertained, but also learn some underlying message from the narratives.Moreover, a narrative is set in specific cultural contexts. Readers can get a deep insight of that culture, and develop an understanding toward it. Thus, narratives can act as a binding force in uniting humanity.

Prologue

Prologue comes from the Greek term prologos, which means "before word," is an opening of a story that establishes the setting, and gives background details. Generally speaking, the main function of a prologue tells some earlier story, and connects it to the main story. Similarly, it serves as a means to introduce characters of a story, and sheds light on their roles. In its modern sense, a prologue acts as a separate entity, and is not considered part of the current story that a writer ventures to tell.Examples of Prologue in LiteratureExample #1: Prologue on the Greek StageThe prologos in Greek dramas incorporated the above-mentioned features, but it had a wider importance than the modern interpretations of the prologue. Greek prologos was more like a preface - an introduction to a literary work provided by a dramatist, to tell how the idea of the story developed. Therefore, in Greek dramas, prologue was a complete episode, or the first act, which was succeeded by the remaining acts of a play.The invention of prologue is attributed to Euripides. He prefixed a prologue to his plays as an explanatory first act in order to make the upcoming events in a play comprehensible for his audience. Other dramatists followed in his footsteps, and prologue became a part of the traditional formula for writing plays. Almost all Greek prologues told about events that happened much earlier in time than the events depicted in the play.Example #2: Prologue on the Latin StagePlautus, a Latin playwright, has written examples of prologues in his plays that were more elaborate than Greek prologues. His prologues were admired for their romantic quality, and were usually performed by characters that did not make an appearance in the play.A prologue to Plautus' play Rudens is a perfect manifestation of his genius in writing prologue. Later, French playwright Moliere revived prologue on the Latin stage by prefixing it to his play Amphitryon. Furthermore, we notice French playwright John Racine introducing his choral tragedy Esther, with a prologue with the character Piety as its speaker.Example #3: Prologue on the Elizabethan Stage The early English dramatists were influenced by the traditions of prologues in Greek and Latin plays. Even the early forms of drama, mystery, and morality plays always began with a homily, which was a religious commentary on the biblical story that was to be performed in those plays. Elizabethan dramatists took inspiration from the Greek and Latin tradition of prologue, holding it as a compulsory ingredient of their plays.In 1562, Thomas Norton, and Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset wrote Gorboduc, which is believed to be the first English play. He prepared a pantomime that acted as a prologue for his play. Later, he wrote Induction, which was a prologue to his Miscellany of short romantic epics.A prologue to Elizabethan plays usually served to quieten and settle down an audience before the commencement of a play. It then introduced the themes of the play and other particulars to the audience, making them mentally prepared for the events they were to witness in the performance. Also, it was considered necessary to beg their leniency for any error that might occur in the writing of the play, or in the performances of actors on stage.Usually, the character who uttered the prologue was dressed in black, in order to differentiate him from the rest of the actors who wore colorful costumes during their performances. For instance, read the following lines from the prologue in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet:"Two households, both alike in dignity(In fair Verona, where we lay our scene),From ancient grudge break to new mutiny,Where civil blood makes civil hands unclean.From forth the fatal loins of these two foesA pair of star-crossed lovers take their life,Whose misadventured piteous overthrowsDoth with their death bury their parents' strife.The fearful passage of their death-marked loveAnd the continuance of their parents' rage,Which, but their children's end, naught could remove,Is now the two hours' traffic of our stage—The which, if you with patient ears attend,What here shall miss, our toil shall strive to mend."The Chorus in the extract not only introduces the theme, but also asks the audience to be attentive "with patient ears attend."Example #4: Non-Dramatic PrologueIn English literature, a prologue was employed in non-dramatic fiction as well as fiction. One of the earliest prologue examples is Geoffrey Chaucer's A Prologue to Canterbury Tales, which was built on the conventional pattern. He used it to introduce all of his characters, or "pilgrims," in dramatic details before each of them told their story on their way to Canterbury to visit the shrine of Saint Thomas Beckett.Function of Prologue As previously mentioned, the primary function of a prologue is to let the readers or audience be aware of the earlier part of the story, and enable them to relate it to the main story. This literary device is also a means to present characters and establish their roles.

Prose

Prose is a form of language that has no formal metrical structure. It applies a natural flow of speech, and ordinary grammatical structure, rather than rhythmic structure, such as in the case of traditional poetry. Normal everyday speech is spoken in prose, and most people think and write in prose form. Prose comprises of full grammatical sentences, which consist of paragraphs, and forgoes aesthetic appeal in favor of clear, straightforward language. It can be said to be the most reflective of conversational speech. Some works of prose do have versification, and a blend of the two formats that is called "prose poetry."Example of a Poetry Verse vs. the Prose FormFollowing is a poetry verse from a popular work of Robert Frost:"The woods are lovely, dark and deep.But I have promises to keep,And miles to go before I sleep,And miles to go before I sleep."(Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening, by Robert Frost)Prose FormFollowing is the same sentiment written in prose form:"The woods look lovely against the setting darkness and as I gaze into the mysterious depths of the forest, I feel like lingering here longer. However, I have pending appointments to keep, and much distance to cover before I settle in for the night, or else I will be late for all of them."The above paragraph is conveying a similar message, but it is conveyed in ordinary language, without a formal metrical structure to bind it.Some Common Types of Prose Nonfictional Prose: A literary work that is mainly based on fact, though it may contain fictional elements in certain cases. Examples include biographies and essays.Fictional Prose: A literary work that is wholly or partly imagined or theoretical. Examples are novels.Heroic Prose: A literary work that may be written down or recited, and which employs many of the formulaic expressions found in oral tradition. Examples are legends and tales.Prose Poetry: A literary work that exhibits poetic quality - using emotional effects and heightened imagery - but which are written in prose instead of verse.Examples of Prose in LiteratureProse in NovelsThis is usually written in the form of a narrative, and may be entirely a figment of the author's imagination.Example #1: 1984 (By George Orwell)"It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen."Example #2: David Copperfield (By Charles Dickens) "Whether I shall turn out to be the hero of my own life, or whether that station will be held by anybody else, these pages must show."Example #3: Anna Karenina (By Leo Tolstoy)"Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way."These examples of prose have been taken from novels, where the writers have employed their imaginations. They are examples of fictional prose.Prose in SpeechesProse used in speeches often expresses thoughts and ideas of the speaker.Example #4: No Easy Walk to Freedom speech (By Nelson Mandela)"You can see that there is no easy walk to freedom anywhere, and many of us will have to pass through the valley of the shadow (of death) again and again before we reach the mountain tops of our desires."Example #5: Nobel Peace Prize Acceptance Speech (By Mother Teresa)"The poor are very great people. They can teach us so many beautiful things."Example #6: Equal Rights for Women speech (By U.S. Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm)"As for the marriage laws, they are due for a sweeping reform, and an excellent beginning would be to wipe the existing ones off the books."These prose examples have been taken from speeches where the writing is often crisp and persuasive, and suits the occasion to convey a specific message.Prose in PlaysProse written in plays aims to be dramatic and eventful.Example #7: Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (By Tennessee Williams)"You can be young without money, but you can't be old without it."Example #8: As You Like It (By William Shakespeare)"All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players. "Prose in plays is often in conversational mode and is delivered by a character. However, its style stays the same throughout the play according to the personality of the character.Function of ProseWhile there have been many critical debates over the correct and valid construction of prose, the reason for its adoption can be attributed to its loosely-defined structure, which most writers feel comfortable using when expressing or conveying their ideas and thoughts. It is the standard style of writing used for most spoken dialogues, fictional as well as topical and factual writing, and discourses. It is also the common language used in newspapers, magazines, literature, encyclopedias, broadcasting, philosophy, law, history, the sciences, and many other forms of communication.

Prosthesis

Prosthesis is a literary device that involves the addition of an extra sound or syllable to the beginning of a word, which helps in making it easier to pronounce. Since the meaning of this word is "to put before," an additional syllable or sound is placed at the beginning of a word, which helps in highlighting it. It can be understood from the following example: "Old fond eyes, beweep this cause again...." (King Lear, by William Shakespeare).Here, Shakespeare adds be- (an extra syllable) at the beginning of the word weep, making it beweep.Difference Between Aphaeresis, Apocope, and ProsthesisAphaeresis and apocope are opposites of prosthesis. In aphaeresis, an unaccented or accented syllable is removed from the front of a word to create a new phrase or term. Like, "the king hath cause to plain." (King Lear, by William Shakespeare). Here, Shakespeare has deleted the initial syllable of the word "complain," which is changed into the word "plain"; whereas, apocope is the removal of a letter or syllable at the end of a word. An example is in the following line: "when I ope my lips let no dog bar" (The Merchant of Venice, by William Shakespeare).On the other hand, prosthesis is adding an additional letter or syllable to the front of a word. Like, "Touchstone: I remember, when I was in love I broke my sword upon a stone and bid him take that for coming a-night to Jane Smile." (As You Like It, by William Shakespeare). In these lines, an extra letter "a" is added to word "night."Examples of Prosthesis in Literature Example #1: Tempest (By William Shakespeare)Prospero: "I have bedimm'd the noontide sun ..."This extract is an example of prosthesis. Here, a word "bedimm'd" gives a poetic touch to a piece of prose by adding "be" at the front. This is among the prosthesis examples that turn an ordinary word into something unique, and give rhythmic effect to a text.Example #2: Sonnet 29 (By William Shakespeare)"I all alone beweep my outcast state ..."This is one of the more popular examples of prosthesis in literature, in which Shakespeare could have used the word "weep," rather than "beweep.' However, he uses prosthesis because this expression matches the meter, and creates a great poetic effect.Example #3: A Dream Within a Dream (By Edgar Allan Poe) "Thus much let me avow-You are not wrong, who deemThat my days have been a dream;Yet if hope has flown away ..."In the excerpt, Poe adds a syllable at the beginning of the word "vow." He added the letter "a" to make the literary piece more rhythmic.Example #4: A Lover's Complaint (By William Shakespeare)"Tearing of papers, breaking rings a-twain,Storming her world with sorrow's wind and rain."Shakespeare widely used prosthesis in his works, such as in this extract, the letter "a" is included in the beginning of the word "twain" to put an emphasis on it.Example #5: On the Morning of Christ's Nativity (By John Milton)"Yet first to those ychain'd in sleep,The wakefull trump of doom must thunder through the deep ..."In this passage, Milton added an extra sound or letter to the word "chain'd," transforming it into "ychain'd." This gives the piece a heightened poetic and rhythmic effect.Example #6: A Dream (By Edgar Allan Poe)"What though that light, thro' storm and night,So trembled from afar-What could there be more purely brightIn Truth's day-star?"This is another good example of prosthesis in which Poe adds a syllable "a" to the word "far." The purpose of this device is to give a perfect rhythmic effect to this extract, and highlight the importance of this particular word in a given context.Function of ProsthesisThe main function of this device is to create a poetic effect in a piece of writing, and to lay emphasis on a particular word. It is a rhetorical strategy of highlighting a point or idea in a text or speech. Since the altered word is employed with additional sound at its beginning, it draws focus, and the attention of readers, by slowing the pace of the text a bit. Frequently, it is used in prose for poetic and humorous effects, in poetry for rhythmic effect, and in everyday conversations and political speeches for emphasis.

Tmesis

Tmesis is derived from the Greek word tmesis, which means "to cut." It is a rhetorical device that involves the breaking down of a phrase or a word into two parts. In simpler words, tmesis is an insertion of a word between the parts of a word, a compound word, or a phrase (phrasal verbs usually). It is a practice of dividing a phrase or word into its components by inserting another word in the middle of that phrase or word. Tmesis is commonly employed in words that have more than three syllables. Let us examine these two examples of tmesis to have a better understanding of this device: Eliza Dolitttle: "Fan-bloody-tastic" or "abso-blooming-lutely" (Pygmalion, by George Bernard Shaw).Here, the words "fantastic" and "absolutely" are separated by the words "bloody" and "blooming," respectively."How-heinous-ever it be," (Richard II, by William Shakespeare).The word, however, is separated by the word "heinous."Classification of TmesisTmesis examples may be classified according to the device's two main groups. The first group of tmesis is formed from cutting phrasal verbs. For example, the phrasal verb "turn off" can be cut into two parts by inserting another word, such as "radio," to form the phrase "turn the radio off"). The meaning of the phrasal verb in this example is retained. In other instances, however, it may change. Another category of English tmesis is formed by adding an infix in modifiers. A good example for this is, "I got forty-bloody-seven /and that's good e-bloody-nough" (Tumba Bloody Rumba, by John O'Grady).Examples of Tmesis in Literature Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)"This is not Romeo, he's some other where."In this excerpt, "somewhere" is split up by inserting the word "other." The purpose of splitting up the word is to highlight and draw the focus of readers to the fact that Romeo is not there, but somewhere else.Example #2: Hymn to Christ (By John Donne)"In whattorn shipsoever I embark,That ship shall be my emblemWhatseasoever swallow me, that floodShall be to me an emblem of thy blood."This is a very good example of phrasal verb tmesis. "Whatsoever" is split into two parts by inserting the words, "torn ship." The same is done in the third line, where the word "sea" is inserted in the middle of the compound word "whatsoever."Example #3: Old Age Sticks (By E. E. Cummings) "old age sticksup KeepOffsigns) &youth yanks themdown(oldagecries NoTres) & (pas)youth laughs(singold agescolds Forbidden StopMustn't Don't&) youth goesright ongrowing old"Cumming has used plenty of tmesis in his works. This poem is a good example. The phrasal verb "yanks down" is split apart by the word "them." This split up of words is used for artistic purpose.Example #4: Troilus & Cressida (By William Shakespeare)"That man-how dearly ever parted."Shakespeare uses tmesis in his literary pieces. Here, the insertion of the word "dearly" into "however" emphasizes the fond feeling that the speaker has towards the dead person.Example #5: Take a Girl Like You (By Kingsley Amis)"It's a sort of long cocktail—he got the formula off a barman in Marrakesh or some-bloody-where."The word "somewhere" is divided by the word "bloody." This inserted word makes the readers focus on the speaker's "I don't care" attitude toward the origin of the formula.Function of TmesisTmesis is mainly used to create humor, and lay emphasis on a particular word or phrase. The Romans and Greeks used tmesis for special effects in literature. In comedy, it works as over-done exaggeration. In poetry, its task is to stress a point, as it forces readers to give more attention to the cut phrase or line. It is regularly used in informal speech, as well. In Australian English, it is called "tumba rumba."

Comparison and Contrast Essay

A comparison and contrast essay compares two similar objects, or contrasts dissimilar objects, in a way that readers become informed about the advantages and disadvantages of both the objects. Readers are then able to weigh pros and cons of the objects compared and contrasted to select a better product. It, however, does not mean that it is only a comparison or contrast of products, it could be a situation after which readers are to make a decision, weighing pros and cons. Although a comparison and contrast essay is set to demonstrate both similarities as well as differences, sometimes it only shows similarities, and at other times, only differences. Difference Between a Division/Classification and Comparison/Contrast EssayA division and classification essay, like comparison and contrast essay, is also an analysis essay whose objective is to break a thing or idea, or an essay into bits for analysis. A comparison and contrast essay, however, intends to point out qualities and deficiencies in things, or explain bad and good aspects of an issue. This is mostly done for decision making purposes.Examples of Comparison and Contrast Essay in Literature Example #1: A Slow Walk of Trees (by Toni Morrison)"His name was John Solomon Willis, and when at age 5 he heard from the old folks that "the Emancipation Proclamation was coming," he crawled under the bed. It was his earliest recollection of what was to be his habitual response to the promise of white people: horror and an instinctive yearning for safety. He was my grandfather, a musician who managed to hold on to his violin but not his land. He lost all 88 acres of his Indian mother's inheritance to legal predators who built their fortunes on the likes of him. He was an unreconstructed black pessimist who, in spite of or because of emancipation, was convinced for 85 years that there was no hope whatever for black people in this country. His rancor was legitimate, for he, John Solomon, was not only an artist but a first-rate carpenter and farmer, reduced to sending home to his family money he had made playing the violin because he was not able to find work. And this during the years when almost half the black male population were skilled craftsmen who lost their jobs to white ex-convicts and immigrant farmers."This passage compares two types of attitudes about the author's grandfather; one of the black community and the other of the response of the white to this blackness.Example #2: Reality TV: Surprising Throwback to The Past? (by Patricia Cohen)"To many critics, Cupid and other matchmaking shows that mix money and real-life marital machinations represent a cynical and tasteless new genre that is yet another sign of America's moral decline. But there's something familiar about the fortune hunters, the status seekers, the thwarted loves, the meddling friends, the public displays, the comic manners, and the sharp competitiveness—all find their counterparts in Jane Austen and Edith Wharton. Only now, three-minute get-to-know-you tryouts in a TV studio substitute for three-minute waltzes at a ball. Traditional family values, it turns out, are back on television after all."In this passage, Patricia Cohen compares two attitudes: one of materialism, and the other of morality. She bemoans moral decline, but praises the literary taste.Example #3: Euromail and Amerimail (by Eric Weiner) "Euromail is stiff and cold, often beginning with a formal 'Dear Mr. X,' and ending with a brusque 'Sincerely.' You won't find any mention of kids or the weather or jellyfish in Euromail. It's all business. It's also slow. Your correspondent might take days, even weeks, to answer a message. Euromail is also less confrontational in tone, rarely filled with the overt nastiness that characterizes American e-mail disagreements. In other words, Euromail is exactly like the Europeans themselves. (I am, of course, generalizing. German e-mail style is not exactly the same as Italian or Greek, but they have more in common with each other than they do with American mail.)"In this passage, Eric Weiner compares euromail and Amerimail to point out the drawbacks of one, and highlight the qualities of the other.Functions of a Comparison and Contrast EssayA comparison and contrast essay helps readers reach a critical decision. It could be a comparison and contrast of two products, two objects, two things, or two issues. Readers read the essays, weigh all aspects, and then decide whether to make a purchase and decide in favor of one thing or not. This type of essay also makes readers more cognizant of the situations or issues discussed.

Couplet

A couplet is a literary device that can be defined as having two successive rhyming lines in a verse, and has the same meter to form a complete thought. It is marked by a usual rhythm, rhyme scheme, and incorporation of specific utterances. It could be an independent poem, and might be a part of other poems, such as sonnets in Shakespearean poetry. If a couplet has the ability to stand apart from the rest of the poem, it is independent, and hence it is called a "closed couplet." A couplet that cannot render a proper meaning alone is called an "open couplet."One of the commonly used couplet examples are these two lines from William Shakespeare's Hamlet:"The time is out of joint, O cursed spiteThat ever I was born to set it right!"Types of CoupletsShort CoupletSplit CoupletHeroic Couplet (Closed and Open Couplets)Shakespearean CoupletAlexandrine CoupletQasidaChinese CoupletExamples of Couplet in Literature Example #1: Sonnet III (By William Shakespeare)"Look in thy glass, and tell the face thou viewestNow is the time that face should form another;Whose fresh repair if now thou not renewest,Thou dost beguile the world, unbless some mother,For where is she so fair whose unear'd womb...But if thou live, remember'd not to be,Die single, and thine image dies with thee."This is one of the Shakespearean sonnets that contains 14 lines; a couplet at the end of the poem usually rhymes, and concludes the poem. These lines generally give commentary on the theme.Example #2: One Happy Moment (By John Dryden)"O, no, poor suff'ring Heart, no Change endeavour,Choose to sustain the smart, rather than leave her;My ravish'd eyes behold such charms about her,I can die with her, but not live without her:One tender Sigh of hers to see me languish,Will more than pay the price of my past anguish..."This excerpt is an example of closed heroic couplets. The lines are following an iamb pentameter pattern. All the couplets are forming complete separate thoughts and ideas, and the rhyme scheme is perfect.Example #3: Hero and Leander (By Christopher Marlowe) "At Sestos Hero dwelt; Hero the fair,Whom young Apollo courted for her hair,And offered as a dower his burning throne,Where she should sit for men to gaze upon.The outside of her garments were of lawn,The lining purple silk, with gilt stars drawn..."This is another very good example of open heroic couplets, where the end of each couplet is enjambed - its phrasal and syntactic sense is carried to the next lines. Or in poetic terms, it can be said that there is no caesura.Example #4: An Essay on Criticism (By Alexander Pope)"A little learning is a dangerous thing;Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring:There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain,And drinking largely sobers us again.Fired at first sight with what the Muse imparts,In fearless youth we tempt the heights of arts..."This excerpt is a good example of closed heroic couplets. Here, all the couplets make complete sense - meaning they do not carry their sense into the following lines. Moreover, these couplets also rhyme.Example #5: The Canterbury Tales (By Geoffrey Chaucer)"Whan that aprill with his shoures sooteThe droghte of march hath perced to the roote,And bathed every veyne in swich licourOf which vertu engendred is the flour;Whan zephirus eek with his sweete breethInspired hath in every holt and heethTendre croppes, and the yonge sonneHath in the ram his halve cours yronne..."This excerpt is an example of open heroic couplets that have iambic pentameter pattern. All the lines rhyme, they do not give independent meanings in a single line, and the sense is carried to subsequent lines.Function of CoupletThe rhyming couplets are usually used in poetry in order to make a poem interesting and rhythmic. They help create a rhyming effect in a poem. In literature, Chaucer, Dryden, Pope and Shakespeare have been famous for using rhyming heroic couplets. In Arabic and Chinese literature, rhyming couplets have also been used extensively.

Assonance

Assonance takes place when two or more words, close to one another repeat the same vowel sound, but start with different consonant sounds. For instance, in the following sentence: "Men sell the wedding bells."The same vowel sound of the short vowel "-e-" repeats itself in almost all the words, excluding the definite article. The words do share the same vowel sounds, but start with different consonant sounds - unlike alliteration, which involves repetition of the same consonant sounds. Below are a few assonance examples that are common.Common Assonance ExamplesWe light fire on the mountain.I feel depressed and restleGo and mow the lawn.Johnny went here and there and everywheThe engineer held the steering to steer the vehicle.Brief Examples of Assonance "If I bleat when I speak it's because I just got . . . flee"— Deadwood, by Al Swearengin"Those images that yet,Fresh images beget,That dolphin-torn, that gong-tormented sea."— Byzantium, by W. B. Yeats"Strips of tinfoil winking like people"— The Bee Meeting by Sylvia Plath"I must confess that in my quest I felt depressed and restless."— With Love, by Thin LizzyExamples of Assonance in LiteratureAssonance is primarily used in poetry, in order to add rhythm and music, by adding an internal rhyme to a poem. Let us look at some examples of assonance from literature:Example #1: Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening (By Robert Frost)Try to recognize the use of assonance in Robert Frost's poem Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening:"He gives his harness bells a shakeTo ask if there is some mistake.The only other sound's the sweepOf easy wind and downy flake.The woods are lovely, dar and deep.But I have promises to keep,And miles to go before I sleep,And miles to go before I sleep."The underlined bold letters in the above extract are vowels that are repeated to create assonance.Example #2: Early Moon (By Carl Sandburg)Assonance sets the mood of a passage in Carl Sandburg's Early Moon:"Poetry is old, ancient, goes back far. It is among the oldest of living things. So old it is that no man knows how and why the first poems came."Notice how the long vowel, "o", in the above extract, helps emphasize the idea of something being old and mysterious.Example #3: Outer Dark (By Cormac McCarthy) The sound of long vowels slows down the pace of a passage, setting an atmosphere that is grave and serious. Look at the following example from Cormac McCarthy's Outer Dark:"And stepping softly with her air of blooded ruin about the glade in a frail agony of grace she trailed her rags through dust and ashes, circling the dead fire, the charred billets and chalk bones, the little calcined ribcage."The repetition of the long vowel sound in the above passage lays emphasis on the frightening atmosphere that the writer wants to depict.Example #4: Do Not Go Gentle into the Good Night (By Dylan Thomas)Similarly, we notice the use of long vowels in a passage from Dylan Thomas' famous poem, Do Not Go Gentle into the Good Night:"Do not go gentle into that good night,Old age should burn and rave at close of day;Rage, rage, against the dying of the light.Grave men, near death, who see with blinding sight,Blind eyes could blaze like meteors and be gay,Rage, rage against the dying of the light."The poet deliberately uses assonance in the above lines to slow down the pace of the poem, and to create a somber mood, as the subject of the poem is death.Example #5: Daffodils (By William Wordsworth)William Wordsworth employs assonance to create an internal rhyme in his poem Daffodils:"I wandered lonely as a cloudThat floats on high o'er vales and hills,When all at once I saw a crowd,A host, of golden daffodils;Beside the lake, beneath the trees,Fluttering and dancing in the breeze..."Example #6: The Feast of Famine (By Robert Louis Stevenson)"From folk that sat on the terrace and drew out the even longSudden crowings of laughter, monotonous drone of song;The quiet passage of souls over his head in the trees;And from all around the haven the crumbling thunder of seas."Farewell, my home," said Rua. "Farewell, O quiet seat!To-morrow in all your valleys the drum of death shall beat."This is a good example of assonance, in which almost all the lines contain one example of assonance. All the examples have been written in bold. In the first line, the /a/ sound has been repeated. In the second line, the /o/ sound, as in dog, has been repeated. In the third line, the /o/ sound as in go has been repeated. In fourth line, /ʌ/ as in must has been repeated. In the fifth line, the /a/ sound as in air, and the /e/ sound, as in ten have been repeated. In the sixth line, the long /e/ sound, as in sheep has been repeated.Example #7: When I have Hears (By John Keats)"When I have fears that I may cease to beBefore my pen has gleaned my teeming brain,Before high-piled books, in charactery,Hold like rich garners the full ripened grain ..."This excerpt has been taken from John Keats' sonnet, When I Have Fears. The first line exhibits repetition of the long /i/ sound, as in tripe. The second line again contains the same long /i/ sound. The fourth line repeats /ai/ sound as in bye.Example #8: The Master (By Edgar Allan Poe)"And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtainThrilled me - filled me with fantastic terrors never felt before;So that now, to still the beating of my heart, I stood repeating`'Tis some visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door -Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door; "This it is, and nothing more."The Master, by Edgar Allan Poe, is teeming with the examples of assonance. The first line repeats the /ur/ sound, as in bird. The second line starts with the repetition of the short /i/ sound, and ends with the repetition of the short /e/ sound. The fourth line repeats the long /i/ sound twice. The third line has a short /i/ sound twice. The last line has again short /i/ sound repeated four times.Function of AssonanceSimilar to any other literary device, assonance has a very important role to play in both poetry and prose. Writers use it as a tool to enhance a musical effect in the text by using it for creating internal rhyme. This consequently enhances the pleasure of reading a literary piece. In addition, it helps writers to develop a particular mood in the text that corresponds with its subject matter.

Cadence

Cadence is derived from the Latin word cadentia, which means "a falling." It is the term used to signal the rising and falling of the voice when reading a literary piece. In poetry, it is the momentary changes in rhythm and pitch. Cadences help set the rhythmic pace of a literary piece. Types of CadencesMost of the cadence examples in literatureImperfect or half cadence - In poetry, a half cadence is a pause. Half cadence is represented with a comma, or a semi-colon, in poetry and prose. This rhythm does not sound final, and often the lines end with indecisive tension.Perfect or authentic cadence - Perfect cadence comes at the end of the phrase in a poem.Examples of Cadence in Literature Example #1: Painting of a Bedroom with Cats (By Elizabeth Bartlett)"The curved cane chair has dented cushions, the catsCatch spiders and craneflies on the wardrobe tops,The guitar lies in its funeral case, the road is quiet,The apple trees have dropped their fruit in the grass;Rain is coming in from the west; the garden is lush and damp,The draught is over, and the day is at the eleventh hour,Sleep is nearly here on fern-patterned pillowcases,Books slither to the floor, cats is stretched on the quit..."In this poem, cadence appears in the middle of the fourth line of each stanza, giving the speech a pause. This pause is shown by a semi-colon. It also gives a momentary variation to the rhythm of poem.Example #2: The Raven (By Edgar Allan Poe)"Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary,Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore—While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,' 'Tis some visiter,' I muttered, 'tapping at my chamber door—Only this and nothing more.' ..."And the Raven, never flitting, still is sitting, still is sittingOn the pallid bust of Pallas just above my chamber door;And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon's that is dreaming,And the lamp-light o'er him streaming throws his shadow on the floor;And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor."The Raven is a perfect example of cadence. Here we can see breaks and ends within a piece of poetry. These endings come in the middle of the poem, and are represented by dashes and semi-colons. Due to these pauses, it speeds up and slows down the tone of the whole poem.Example #3: London (By F. S. Flint) "It is not the sunsetNor the pale green skyShimmering through the curtainOf the silver birch,Nor the quietness;It is not the hoppingOf the little birdsUpon the lawn,Nor the darknessStealing over all thingsThat moves me..."The style of this poem is a free verse, which does not have a distinct meter. Since most of the free verse poems have cadences, the same is the case here. In this poem, cadence is used in the middle as a little pause that changes the rise and fall of the tone when reading out loud.Function of CadenceCadence is a musical movement, marked by melodic, rhythmic, or harmonic characteristics. It is used to establish sectional articulation and closure. However, the basic purpose of cadence is a communicative function that indicates to the listeners when a part ends, and therefore helps them elucidate the formal composition of the piece.Cadences are used in poetry and in music, where they sync with a variety of musical idioms. Poets use cadence to put rhythm in their poems. Cadence plays a significant role in making the sounds and the senses in a poem connect to each other.

Canto

Canto is a subdivision or part in a narrative or epic poem, consisting of five or more lines such, as a stanza, which could also be a canto. The word "canto" originates from the Latin word cantus, which means "a song." The Italian poets Dante, Matteo Boiardo, and Ludovico used cantos to divide their poems into shorter sections for thematic understanding. In English literature, Edmund Spenser is the first poet who used this division in his famous poem "The Faerie Queene." Lord Byron also used this division in his poem, "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage."Examples of Canto in LiteratureExample #1: The Faerie Queene (by Edmund Spenser)"The Patron of true Holinesse,FouleErrour doth defeate:Hypocrisie him to entrappe,Doth to his home entreate.Gentle Knight was pricking on the plaine,Y clad in mightiearmes and suluershielde,Wherein old dints of deepe wounds did remaine,The cruellmarkes of many' a bloudyfielde;Yet armes till that time did he neuer wield;His angry steede did chike his foming bitt,As much disdaining to the curbe to yield."This canto describes the character of the knight, who represents all the qualities of chivalry, such as bravery and fighting spirit. It comprises eleven lines, as compared to six or seven lines of Italian cantos.Example #2: Inferno (by Dante Alighieri)"One night, when half my life behind me lay,I wandered from the straight lost path afar.Through the great dark was no releasing way;Above that dark was no relieving star.If yet that terrored night I think or say,As death's cold hands its fears resuming are.Gladly the dreads I felt, too dire to tell,The hopeless, pathless, lightless hours forgot,I turn my tale to that which next befell,When the dawn opened, and the night was not."This is another good example of canto, a major section of Dante's "Divine Comedy." Here, Dante describes how he loses the right path when travelling through the forest. However, this canto comprises ten lines as opposed to eleven lines of the first example.Example #3: The Cantos (by Ezra Pound)"And then went down to the ship,Set keel to breakers, forth on the godly seas, andWe set up mast and sail on that swart ship,Bore sheep aboard her, and our bodies alsoHeavy with weeping, and winds from sternwardBore us out onward with bellying canvas,Circe's this craft, the trim-coifed goddess ..."Ezra Pound has written this poem in 129 parts, and each part is a separate canto. This is the first part in which he describes a journey by ship, which is loaded with sheep, and is sailing away from some hidden place. The word 'Circe' is a reference to Homer's epic, "The Odyssey," which points to the eerie atmosphere created by Pound in this poem.Example #4: Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (by Lord Byron) "I stood in Venice, on the Bridge of Sighs;A Palace and a Prison on each handI saw from out the wave her structures riseAs from the stroke of the Enchanter's wand:A thousand Years their cloudy wings expandAround me, and a dying Glory smilesO'er the far times, when many a subject LandLooked to the winged Lion's marble piles,Where Venice sate in state, throned on her hundred isles!"This is the fourth canto of "Child Harold's Pilgrimage," in which he describes his journey to Italy. It also shows his lamentation on the decay of ancient civilization.Example #5: Don Juan (by Lord Byron)"I want a Hero: an uncommon Want,When every Year and Month sends forth a new one,Till, after cloying the Gazettes with Cant,The Age discovers he is not the true one;Of such as these I should not care to vauntI'll therefore take our ancient friend Don Juan;We all have seen him in the Pantomime,Sent to the Devil, somewhat ere his time."This is the first canto, in which Lord Byron says that his own age is unable to provide a suitable hero for his poem - the reason that he is using an old friend, Don Juan, as a hero.Function Canto is used as an introduction to a poem, as well as serves as a unitary prologue to an entire epic. It also enables the reader to understand different turning points in the poem. The use of canto divides episodes in a poem to make it easier for the reader to understand.

Caricature

Caricature is a device used in descriptive writing and visual arts, in which particular aspects of a subject are exaggerated, to create a silly or comic effect. In other words, it can be defined as a plastic illustration, derisive drawing, or a portrayal based on exaggeration of the natural features, which gives a humorous touch to the subject. During the 16th century, numerous painters (Holbein, Bruegel, and Bosch, for example) used particular aspects of caricature in their work. However, it did not involve anything comic until the 17th century. Later, in the 18th century, Carracci introduced caricature in a witty way in his works. Caricatures started gaining popularity in England when artists like Hogarth, Rowlandson, and Gillray followed Carracci's footsteps. The genre slowly developed to accommodate social and political satire as well.Examples of Caricature in LiteratureExample #1: Ethnic Distinctions, No Longer So Distinctive (By Matt Bai, New York Times, June 29, 2010)Several authors have written about how President Obama is unpredictable. A piece of writing was published in The New York Times that shed light on this particular subject by highlighting how people have exaggerated certain aspects of the President's personality. Following is an excerpt from the same paper by Matt Bai:"Over the course of the last several weeks, commentators have taken to portraying Mr. Obama as clinical and insufficiently emotive, which is really just another way of saying the president is not really knowable. It is a caricature his opponents can exploit in part because a lot of voters remain murky on his cultural identity."Caricature arises from the forcing and the embellishment of the basic rule of good description, that is, the principle of the dominant impression.Example #2: Bleak House (By Charles Dickens)One of the great examples of caricature from Charles Dickens has been given below:"Mr. Chadband is a large yellow man, with a fat smile, and a general appearance of having a good deal of train oil in his system. Mrs. Chadband is a stern, severe-looking, silent woman. Mr. Chadband moves softly and cumbrously, not unlike a bear who has been taught to walk upright. He is very much embarrassed about the arms, as if they were inconvenient to him."It is beautiful example of caricaturing through words. The dominating impression is made by words like "oily" and "fat," which sound quite literal initially. However, you realize shortly that the literal oiliness is a representation of the character Chadband. Chadband has a 'fat' smile, and on the whole he appears to be slightly unctuous, like a phony preacher.Function of Caricature The caricature examples above have underscored the functions and role of caricature, and how it has evolved in modern day literature. Coming up with novel ideas to explain oneself, and the nature of the human race in general, is not something new to the world. This sort of representation has been witnessed since the time when men lived in caves.Caricature was introduced to the masses during the age of enlightenment, and it bestowed the age it belongs to, with its subtlety and critical attitude. As a branch of modernism, it played a great role in expressing facts that were suppressed because of the conformists in the society at that point in time. It was a reminder for those who believed that the sword was mightier than the pen, and it started being used as a visual expressioof conventional society.Nowadays, caricature is a highly dignified form of art that is approved of and used worldwide. Newspaper editors show great respect for the artists who create caricatures for their papers, which ofttimes publish caricatures that might even represent a conflicting ideology. Where this distinctive form of art can be used to portray important and transforming social and political ideas, it can also be provocative to certain groups. Underdeveloped countries have had a hard time warming up to this form of expression because they believe it is a creation of evil by governments.

Catachresis

Catachresis is a figure of speech in which writers use mixed metaphors in an inappropriate way, to create rhetorical effect. Often, it is used intentionally to create a unique expression. Catachresis is also known as an exaggerated comparison between two ideas or objects. Features of CatachresisMixed metaphors are good examples of catachresis, and writers often use them to create rhetorical effect. They are used to express extreme alienation or heightened emotions. Catachresis is considered as a mistake in language, as it may change the meanings of words. It is a combination of different types of figures of speech. It is prominently used in post-structuralist literary works, since those writers were expert in using wordplay, and creating confusion in literary texts, which is an important part of catachresis.Some Forms of Catachresis Sometimes a word is used to indicate something completely different from the literal meaning of that word. Such as in this example, "Tis deepest winter in Lord Timon's purse; that is, one may reach deep enough, and find little" (Timon of Athens, by William Shakespeare).Sometimes a word is used to indicate something whose actual name is not used like, "A chair's arm."Sometimes a paradoxical statement is used to create illogical strained metaphors. Such as, "Take arms against a sea of troubles."Abusio is a subtype of catachresis, which results from the combination of two metaphors.Examples of Catachresis in LiteratureExample #1: On Revenge (By Francis Bacon)"A man that studies revenge keeps his own wounds green..."Bacon uses metaphorical language by comparing revenge with wounds. The writer has made a connection between seemingly unconnected topics. However, catachresis is creating a rhetorical effect in this serious text.Example #2: King John (By William Shakespeare)"I do not ask much:I beg cold comfort ..."We can find numerous catachresis examples in Shakespeare's works, as he regularly used mixed metaphors intentionally in his literary writings. Here, he has used catachresis, "cold comfort."Example #3: Poem 640 (By Emily Dickinson) "With just the Door ajarThat oceans are — and Prayer—And that White Sustenance — Despair—"In the first and second lines, we can see the paradox in phrases that are shown in bold. These describe two differing distances that spread hopelessness. In the same way, "white sustenance" means colorless nourishment that actually does not nourish the body.Example #4: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)Hamlet:"... Or to take arms against a sea of troublesAnd, by opposing, end them? To die, to sleep—"Here, Hamlet is just thinking futilely after facing a sea of problems. In this way, Shakespeare has used a straight metaphor, albeit taken as a catachresis here.Example #5: somewhere i have never travelled, gladly beyond (By E. E. Cummings)"The voice of your eyes is deeper than all roses -nobody, not even the rain, has such small hands ..."In this extract, the poet is making an illogical comparison between the voice of his beloved's eyes, and roses and rain with the hands. The poet is trying to express the power of his beloved over him, and her importance to him.Example #6: The Tempest (By William Shakespeare)"His complexion is perfect gallows ..."In the given line, the character Gonzalo is implying that Boatswain looks like a criminal, and must be hanged. Here, "perfect gallows" is used as a mixed metaphor. The two objects are compared, though there is no obvious similarity between them.Example #7: Peri Bathous (By Alexander Pope)"Mow the beard,Shave the grass,Pin the plank,Nail my sleeve ..."In the above example, the metaphoric words are shown in bold. The literal and metaphorical meanings can be understood in the context, which the poet is describing as: know-how, capacities, dispositions, and skills.Function of CatachresisCatachresis can be used both in poetry and prose. In poetry it is used by misusing a phrase or word to deliberately create a mixed metaphor. Poets use catachresis to achieve a stylistic effect, or to exert great compression in both comic as well as serious writing. Also, sometimes it is used to create a reference that did not exist, but the major reason of using this technique is to express the ideas in a unique and creative way.

Catalog

Catalog or Catalogue is a literary device used in poetry and prose to give a list of things and create a rhetorical effect. Writers use it to make a list of multiple thoughts in a unified form. However, the poet's do not add Catalogs randomly, and they are well thought. The list is deliberately inserted to make the audience enjoy the conventional style of poetry. Etymologically, Catalog refers to a list. Features of CatalogIt often involves repetitionCatalog verses can be a list of people, places or ideas.It can include rhyme or can be a free verse poem.Examples of Catalog from Literature Example #1Pied Beauty by Gerard Manley Hopkins "Glory be to God for dappled things -For skies of couple-colour as a brinded cow;For rose-moles all in stipple upon trout that swim;Fresh-firecoal chestnut-falls; finches' wings;Landscape plotted and pieced - fold, fallow, and plough;And áll trádes, their gear and tackle and trim."This extract has been taken from one of the famous poems of Hopkins, "Pied Beauty." The poet praises God for dappled and spotted things. The poet comments on the changeable nature of the world. As an act of prayer, he thanks God and provides a list of things God created for mankind. In this stanza, he Catalogs variety of creation by God and symbolically illustrates the existences of all species on the earth. He talks about the seas, the plants, the animals and the landscape that humans have altered in a Catalog.Example #2Goblin Market by Christina RossettiMorning and eveningMaids heard the goblins cry:"Come buy our orchard fruits,Come buy, come buy:Apples and quinces,Lemons and oranges,Plump unpeck'd cherries,Melons and raspberries,Bloom-down-cheek'd peaches,Swart-headed mulberries,Wild free-born cranberries,Crab-apples, dewberries,Pine-apples, blackberries,Apricots, strawberries;—All ripe togetherIn summer weather,—Morns that pass by,Fair eves that fly;Come buy, come buy:Our grapes fresh from the vine,Pomegranates full and fine,Dates and sharp bullaces,Rare pears and greengages,Damsons and bilberries,Taste them and try:Currants and gooseberries,Bright-fire-like barberries,It's a long narrative poem about two sisters, Lizzie and Laura, and how Laura tempts to taste the fruits sold by the goblin. The writer Catalogs the variety of fruits available in the Goblin's market and can be interpreted in various ways. However, the use of cataloging technique has made it a conventional poem.Example #3 Song of Myself by Walt WhitmanHouses and rooms are full of perfumes, the shelves are crowded with perfumes,I breathe the fragrance myself and know it and like it,The distillation would intoxicate me also, but I shall not let it.The atmosphere is not a perfume, it has no taste of the distillation, it is odorless,It is for my mouth forever, I am in love with it,I will go to the bank by the wood and become undisguised and naked,I am mad for it to be in contact with me.This poem is about celebration and the poet wants the entire world to be part of this jubilation. He tries to contain the whole world within himself. Therefore, he provides the list of whole stuff belongs to him. In this part, he presents the Catalog of things he loves and wants to keep in life. He has presented a list of things through a chain of associated thought to make the meanings clear giving a unique quality to the poem.Example #4Catalog by Naomi ReplanskyMy blurring eyes, my deafened ears—O careless sadism of the years!Sun-loving and sun-ravaged skin—One-sided love has done you in.My teeth—less said, less missed!—my heart—My runaway, my telltale heart—Heart whose misfirings can defeatThe pulse of this iambic beat!(While hypochondria detectsWhatever ill it hears of next.)She has prepared a long list of her body parts one by one and stated how they are related to her emotions and poetic output. She has started this list from her eyes and goes on to list teeth and heart with each having its own features and contribution in her poetic output.Example #5Fear by Raymond Carver"Fear of seeing a police car pull into the drive.Fear of falling asleep at night.Fear of not falling asleep.Fear of the past rising up.Fear of the present taking flight.Fear of the telephone that rings in the dead of night.Fear of electrical storms.Fear of the cleaning woman who has a spot on her cheek!Fear of dogs I've been told won't bite.Fear of anxiety!Fear of having to identify the body of a dead friend.Fear of running out of money.Fear of having too much, though people will not believe this.Fear of psychological profiles.Fear of being late and fear of arriving before anyone else.Fear of my children's handwriting on envelopes.Fear they'll die before I do, and I'll feel guilty.Fear of having to live with my mother in her old age, and mine.Fear of confusion.Fear this day will end on an unhappy note.Fear of waking up to find you gone.Fear of not loving and fear of not loving enough.Fear that what I love will prove lethal to those I love.Fear of death.Fear of living too long.Fear of death.I've said that."Raymond Carver, famous for writing short stories, has illustrated the example of Catalog poetry through this poem. He presents the list of the types of fear one by one until he has reached the end of what he has stated earlier. This is one of the best examples of Catalog poem in which an exhausted list has been presented for rhetorical impacts.Catalog Meaning and FunctionCatalog or Catalogue provides writers with a tool to portray their feelings, emotions, and ideas in a logical sequence. The writers use Catalog to assemble multiple things in a series. It gives them a chance to bring together many things, ideas, and images and present them for attention in a poem format. Also, the repetition of the words strengthens the importance of ideas discussed.

Catastrophe

Catastrophe is a final resolution that appears in a narrative plot or a long poem. It unravels the mystery or intrigue, and brings the story toward a logical end. In a tragedy, it could be the death of a protagonist or other character; and in a comedy, it could be the union of major characters. Catastrophe is a synonym of denouement. It is, in fact, the final part following protasis, epitasis, and catatasis. Catastrophe wraps up the messy and noisy beginning, such as in Arthur Miller's play, Death of a Salesman, in which catastrophe is brought on when the main character, Willy Loman, dies in a car wreck, ostensibly committing suicide, so that his family could collect his life insurance. His widow says at his funeral that "Willy, I can't cry ... I made the last payment on the house today..."Types of CatastropheSimple CatastropheIn a simple catastrophe, the main characters do not undergo any change, nor does anything unravel; the plot merely serves as a passage. Simple catastrophe usually appears in epic poems, rather than in tragedies.Complex CatastropheComplex catastrophe is a very common tool, in which the protagonist either undergoes a major change of fortune. This type of change is probable and necessary to resolving the plot. Complex catastrophe usually appears in novels, plays, movies, and theatrical performances.Examples of Catastrophe in Literature Example #1: Macbeth (by William Shakespeare)"Despair thy charm;And let the angel whom thou still hast serv'dTell thee, Macduff was from his mother's wombUntimely ripp'd."The following lines present a perfect example of catastrophe, which involves the death of the primary character. Macbeth falls in a mortal fight with Macduff, a man whom Macbeth has nearly wronged. Here it seems that he himself has invited his end.Example #2: Mourning Becomes Electra (by Eugene O'Neil)Eugene O'Neil's play "Mourning Becomes Electra" contains a series of catastrophic events, beginning with the murder of Ezra. Christine manipulates her lover Brant into helping her kill her husband with poison. After his murder, Lavinia and Orin find Brant and shoot him with a pistol.This catastrophe leads to another catastrophe, in the form of Christine's suicide. Orin, consumed by a sense of guilt that he had driven their mother into killing herself, goes insane and commits suicide. Now Lavinia lives in a house of her dead relatives' ghosts, which is a punishment for what they have done.Example #3: Romeo and Juliet (by William Shakespeare) There are multiple characters who invited catastrophe in the play "Romeo and Juliet." However, Romeo himself has invited the worst type of catastrophe after he kills Tybalt. Everything in his and Juliet's life crumbles after that; as a result, Romeo faces a period of exile, leading to a number of other catastrophic events. Had Romeo not killed Tybalt, Friar would have provided a much better plan to hide Juliet, rather than using poison.The best scene of catastrophe happens in Act-V, Scene-III, in which the fall of Paris and two lovers occurs. After the tragic conclusion of the love scene, Friar tells about the marriage and intrigue. The story ends with the death of star-crossed lovers.Example #4: Oedipus Rex (by Sophocles)In Sophocles' "Oedipus Rex," peripeteia leads to anagnorisis, which in turns leads to catastrophe or a terrible suffering. Catastrophe reveals the truth about the origin of Oedipus, after which the Queen Jocasta hangs herself, and Oedipus stabs his eyes, pleading to be exiled. Together all these elements make up catastrophe that King Oedipus invites by exploring his birth. Had he not explored, he might have saved himself and his family from this catastrophe.Example #5: The Return of the Native (by Thomas Hardy)Catastrophe in Hardy's novel, The Return of the Native, comes at the point when Eustacia becomes closer to her old lover, Damon Wildeve; which leads to the death of Clym's mother. It happens when Clym goes blind, and the couple faces economic crisis. After this tense period, Clym has a serious fight with his wife and the two separate. Eustacia plans to run away with her lover in the night. However, there comes a heavy storm, which ends up drowning them.FunctionThe function of a catastrophe is to unravel the plot in a story. It comes after the falling action. It, in fact, serves as a conclusion of the narrative, when the conflict in the story in question is resolved. Catastrophe returns the situation to normal, as the characters experience catharsis, and readers feel a sense of relief. Catastrophe is also a moment when the protagonist faces the world with a new outlook. It tests human qualities, and makes readers decide if the character is good or bad.

Characterization

Characterization is a literary device that is used step-by-step in literature to highlight and explain the details about a character in a story. It is in the initial stage in which the writer introduces the character with noticeable emergence. After introducing the character, the writer often talks about his behavior; then, as the story progresses, the thought-processes of the character. The next stage involves the character expressing his opinions and ideas, and getting into conversations with the rest of the characters. The final part shows how others in the story respond to the character's personality.Characterization as a literary tool was coined in the mid 15th century. Aristotle in his Poetics argued that "tragedy is a representation, not of men, but of action and life." Thus the assertion of the dominance of plot over characters, termed "plot-driven narrative," is unmistakable. This point of view was later abandoned by many because, in the 19th century, the dominance of character over plot became clear through petty bourgeois novels.Types of CharacterizationAn author can use two approaches to deliver information about a character and build an image of it. These two types of characterization include:Direct or explicit characterizationThis kind of characterization takes a direct approach towards building the character. It uses another character, narrator, or the protagonist himself to tell the readers or audience about the subject.Indirect or implicit characterizationThis is a more subtle way of introducing the character to the audience. The audience has to deduce for themselves the characteristics of the character by observing his/her thought process, behavior, speech, way of talking, appearance, and manner of communication with other characters, as well as by discerning the response of other characters.Characterization in Drama On stage or in front of the camera, actors usually do not have much time to characterize. For this reason, the character faces the risk of coming across as underdeveloped. In dramaturgy, realists take a different approach, by relying on implied characterization. This is pivotal to the theme of their character-driven narrative. Examples of these playwrights are Anton Chekhov, Henrik Ibsen, and August Strindberg.Classic psychological characterization examples, such as The Seagull, usually build the main character in a more indirect manner. This approach is considered more effective because it slowly discloses the inner turmoil of the character, over the course of the show, and lets the audience connect better.The actors who act in such roles usually work on them profoundly to get an in-depth idea of the personalities of their respective characters. Often, during such shows, plays, or dramas, no direct statements about the character's nature are found. This kind of realism needs the actors to build the character from their own perspective initially. This is why realistic characterization is more of a subtle art, which cannot directly be recognized.Examples of Characterization in LiteratureExample #1: The Great Gatsby (By F. Scott Fitzgerald)There are many examples of characterization in literature. The Great Gatsby, is probably the best. In this particular book, the main idea revolves around the social status of each character. The major character of the book, Mr. Gatsby, is perceptibly rich, but he does not belong to the upper stratum of society. This means that he cannot have Daisy. Tom is essentially defined by his wealth and the abusive nature that he portrays every now and then, while Daisy is explained by Gatsby as having a voice "full of money."Another technique to highlight the qualities of a character is to put them in certain areas that are symbolic of a social status. In the novel, Gatsby resides in the West Egg, which is considered less trendy than East Egg, where Daisy lives. This difference points out the gap between Jay's and Daisy's social statuses. Moreover, you might also notice that Tom, Jordan, and Daisy live in East Egg while Gatsby and Nick reside in West Egg, which again highlights the difference in their financial background. This division is reinforced at the end of the novel when Nick supports Gatsby against the rest of the folk.Occupations have also been used very tactfully in the novel to highlight characteristics of certain protagonists. The prime example is Gatsby who, despite being so rich, is known by his profession: bootlegging. He had an illegal job that earned him a fortune, but failed to get him into the upper class of New York society. In contrast, Nick has a clean and fair job of a "bond man" that defines his character. The poor guy Wilson, who fixes rich people's cars, befriends his wife; and then there is Jordon, who is presented as a dishonest golf pro.Function of CharacterizationCharacterization is an essential component in writing good literature. Modern fiction, in particular, has taken great advantage of this literary device. Understanding the role of characterization in storytelling is very important for any writer. To put it briefly, it helps us make sense of the behavior of any character in a story by helping us understand their thought processes. A good use of characterization always leads the readers or audience to relate better to the events taking place in the story. Dialogues play a very important role in developing a character, because they give us an opportunity to examine the motivations and actions of the characters more deeply.

Canon

Originated from the Greek term "kanon," canon means "a yard stick," or "a measuring rod." Generally, the term canon is used in three different meanings. First, it is defined as a traditional collection of writings, against which other writings are evaluated. In other words, it means "a long list of works taken as authentic." For example, the Bible - both written in Hebrew, and even translated versions. This sense of the term makes canon opposite to "apocrypha," which means "written works having anonymous authors." The Bible was considered a yardstick to evaluate other literary pieces, according to a certain criterion.Secondly, students of literature use it to refer to the writings included in anthologies, or textbooks under certain genres, and thus are evaluated according to the genre under which they are placed. This meaning covers the entire literature generally thought as suitable for aesthetic admiration and academic use.The third definition of the term indicates the literary writings of a particular author, which are considered by scholars and critics in general to be the genuine creations of that particular author. This is based on some already deduced rules intended to be applied on the future pieces in the same genre. The term "canon" is also confused with a homonym "cannon," which means "a military weapon."Difference Between Canon and ApocryphaApocrypha is also a literary term, which means "hidden," or "anonymous literary pieces," which were considered not to have confirmed to the rules set by the written Bible, in Hebrew or in Latin. It describes those books, which have dubious authorship or the authority, or where the accuracy of the writers is questionable. However, canon is a literary rule that is used to evaluate books and writings against certain models, such as plays are evaluated against Oedipus the King by Sophocles, where Oedipus the King is a yardstick which has set canons for plays.Examples of Canon from Literature Example #1: The Plowman's Tales (By Geoffrey Chaucer)"In a summer season when soft was the sun,I clothed myself in a cloak as I shepherd were,Habit like a hermit's unholy in works,And went wide in the world wonders to hear.But on a May morning on Malvern hills,A marvel befell me of fairy, me thought."Taken from The Plowman's Tale, these lines exemplify the third definition of canon. Chaucer's canon includes "The Canterbury Tales", for instance, but it does not include the apocryphal work, "The Plowman's Tale," which has been mistakenly attributed to him in the past. The canon is the use of archaic language that Chaucer used in his works but not used in this part.Example #2: Authors Who Made Extraordinary Contributions to LiteratureIn the history of literature, a number of authors and poets have made such an extraordinary contributions that their literary works are considered yardsticks to have set canons to evaluate other works. Their literary works obtain in themselves the position of literary canon which the successive writers use as touchstone to compare their creations with. For example:Greek Poet Homer For a very long time the world considered the Greek epics of Homer, the Iliad, and Odyssey, as the most sublime examples of literature. However, we have no idea whether the popular and well-known author was a genuine person. Homer, and the other writers inspired by him, have made their way to the list of the greatest literary brains of the world since antiquity - only by following the literary canons of writing.English Writer William ShakespeareWilliam Shakespeare wrote both tragedies and comedies for Elizabethan audiences, throughout the late 16th, and early 17th centuries. However, Shakespeare's earned appreciation for these works became yardstick by which other writers to judge their places in literature. For many decades, English writers compared themselves with Shakespeare. This approach of looking at, and following a writer's work for measuring literary excellence and success is, in fact, called a "Shakespearean canon."English Novelist Jane AustenJane Austen is one of those female writers who came to the limelight by breaking all the traditional and conventional shackles. She wrote mild and smiling romantic novels, such as Pride and Prejudice and Emma, setting them in England, and making marriage her subject to be explored. As she used round characters in her novels, uniquely different from her counterparts, this became her style, and finally a canon against which other female writers would be evaluated.Function of a CanonThe function of a canon has always raised confusion and complexity. The works, traditionally considered as following a certain canon, belong to the writers who have long been dead. Moreover, only the white and male writers of antiquity have been given membership to this exclusive club. Women, minorities, and non-Western writers were kept out of this kind of arbitrary practice for a long time - until they won recognition such as the writers of the Harlem Renaissance.Furthermore, philosophical and political biases also resulted in disputes over literary canons. Hence, a number of critical circles suggest that the idea of having specific canons for specific genres needs to be abandoned. On the contrary, some other critics advocate the expansion of canons by including the extended range of sampling to broaden the horizon literary canons.

Anadiplosis

The term anadiplosis is a Greek word, which means "to reduplicate." It refers to the repetition of a word or words in successive clauses in such a way that the second clause starts with the same word which marks the end of the previous clause.Anadiplosis exhibits a typical pattern of repeating a word. For example, the repetition of the word "give" in the sentence "When I give, I give myself" is termed anadiplosis, as it occurs at the end of the first clause and marks the beginning of the following clause.Similarly, notice how the use of anadiplosis repeats in its typical fashion the word "reliability" to highlight the main point of the sentence, "This public school has a record of extraordinary reliability, a reliability that every other school is jealous of in the city."Anadiplosis and ChiasmusIt is important to note that anadiplosis is part of another figure of speech, chiasmus. However, every anadiplosis does not necessarily reverse its structure like it is done in chiasmus. For instance, "Forget what you want to remember, and remember what you want to forget" is an example of chiasmus (as it involves a reversal of structure in the second clause) and anadiplosis, as the word "remember" marks the end of one clause and the start of the subsequent clause.Anadiplosis does not always employ a reversal of structure as in the sentence "The land of my fathers, and my fathers can have it." It is an example of anadiplosis involving a typical repetition of the word "my fathers" but, unlike chiasmus, the structure of the final clause is not reversed.Anadiplosis Examples in LiteratureWriters employ anadiplosis in their literary texts to produce special stylistic effects, such as decorating texts by means of its typical repetitive pattern, and laying emphasis on an important point. Let us have a look at a few examples of this stylistic device from literature.Example #1: The Holy Bible, II Peter, 1:5-7 (By the Apostle Peter)"... you must make every effort to support your faith with goodness, and goodness with knowledge, and knowledge with self-control, and self-control with endurance, and endurance with godliness, and godliness with mutual affection, and mutual affection with love."In this verse, one is able to see how all the mentioned qualities are connected to each other with the use of anadiplosis.Example #2: Lycidas (By John Milton)"For Lycidas is dead, dead ere his prime,Young Lycidas and hath not left his peer."Here the word "dead" has been repeated to put emphasis on the death of Lycidas. Milton often used anadiplosis in his works to convince or persuade his readers. The word "dead" serves the same purpose in these lines of Lycidas.Example #3: Lolita (By Vladimir Nabokov) "What I present here is what I remember of the letter, and what I remember of the letter I remember verbatim (including that awful French)."Just observe the beautiful use of the phrase, "what I remember of the letter," as an anadiplosis. The writer clearly wants his readers to focus on what he is saying and repeating in these lines. The message is further enhanced by the use of the word "verbatim."Example #4: Untitled (By Francis Bacon)"He retained his virtues amidst all his - misfortunes - misfortunes which no prudence could foresee or prevent."Here, Bacon has used the word "misfortunes" twice, to bring home to his readers the main idea he is discussing, which is that misfortune is always unpredictable.Example #5: The Isles of Greece (By Lord Byron)"The mountains look on Marathon - And Marathon looks on the sea ..."This is a good use of anadiplosis by Lord Byron. Here, he has stressed the word "Marathon," and repeated it to make it significant in the poem.Example #6: Gladiator movie (By David Franzoni)"The general who became a slave. The slave who became a gladiator. The gladiator who defied an emperor. Striking story!"This is an excerpt of dialogue from the famous movie Gladiator (2000), in which a general is sold as a slave, who then had to work as a gladiator to make himself known in the arena and then defy the emperor. Look at the effects produced by the anadiplosis.Function of Anadiplosis It repeats a word in quick succession, in successive clauses, in order to add emphasis to the main idea. This works because readers tend to focus on the repetition of words, and thereby on the idea emphasized by them. Anadiplosis also serves to decorate a piece of writing or a speech. Often, CEOs and modern executives are fond of using this device to make their suggestions and commands effective.Anadiplosis exhibits a typical pattern of repeating a word. For example, the repetition of the word "give" in the sentence "When I give, I give myself" is termed anadiplosis, as it occurs at the end of the first clause and marks the beginning of the following clause.Similarly, notice how the use of anadiplosis repeats in its typical fashion the word "reliability" to highlight the main point of the sentence, "This public school has a record of extraordinary reliability, a reliability that every other school is jealous of in the city."Anadiplosis and ChiasmusIt is important to note that anadiplosis is part of another figure of speech, chiasmus. However, every anadiplosis does not necessarily reverse its structure like it is done in chiasmus. For instance, "Forget what you want to remember, and remember what you want to forget" is an example of chiasmus (as it involves a reversal of structure in the second clause) and anadiplosis, as the word "remember" marks the end of one clause and the start of the subsequent clause.Anadiplosis does not always employ a reversal of structure as in the sentence "The land of my fathers, and my fathers can have it." It is an example of anadiplosis involving a typical repetition of the word "my fathers" but, unlike chiasmus, the structure of the final clause is not reversed.Anadiplosis Examples in LiteratureWriters employ anadiplosis in their literary texts to produce special stylistic effects, such as decorating texts by means of its typical repetitive pattern, and laying emphasis on an important point. Let us have a look at a few examples of this stylistic device from literature.Example #1: The Holy Bible, II Peter, 1:5-7 (By the Apostle Peter)"... you must make every effort to support your faith with goodness, and goodness with knowledge, and knowledge with self-control, and self-control with endurance, and endurance with godliness, and godliness with mutual affection, and mutual affection with love."In this verse, one is able to see how all the mentioned qualities are connected to each other with the use of anadiplosis.Example #2: Lycidas (By John Milton)"For Lycidas is dead, dead ere his prime,Young Lycidas and hath not left his peer."Here the word "dead" has been repeated to put emphasis on the death of Lycidas. Milton often used anadiplosis in his works to convince or persuade his readers. The word "dead" serves the same purpose in these lines of Lycidas.Example #3: Lolita (By Vladimir Nabokov) "What I present here is what I remember of the letter, and what I remember of the letter I remember verbatim (including that awful French)."Just observe the beautiful use of the phrase, "what I remember of the letter," as an anadiplosis. The writer clearly wants his readers to focus on what he is saying and repeating in these lines. The message is further enhanced by the use of the word "verbatim."Example #4: Untitled (By Francis Bacon)"He retained his virtues amidst all his - misfortunes - misfortunes which no prudence could foresee or prevent."Here, Bacon has used the word "misfortunes" twice, to bring home to his readers the main idea he is discussing, which is that misfortune is always unpredictable.Example #5: The Isles of Greece (By Lord Byron)"The mountains look on Marathon - And Marathon looks on the sea ..."This is a good use of anadiplosis by Lord Byron. Here, he has stressed the word "Marathon," and repeated it to make it significant in the poem.Example #6: Gladiator movie (By David Franzoni)"The general who became a slave. The slave who became a gladiator. The gladiator who defied an emperor. Striking story!"This is an excerpt of dialogue from the famous movie Gladiator (2000), in which a general is sold as a slave, who then had to work as a gladiator to make himself known in the arena and then defy the emperor. Look at the effects produced by the anadiplosis.Function of Anadiplosis It repeats a word in quick succession, in successive clauses, in order to add emphasis to the main idea. This works because readers tend to focus on the repetition of words, and thereby on the idea emphasized by them. Anadiplosis also serves to decorate a piece of writing or a speech. Often, CEOs and modern executives are fond of using this device to make their suggestions and commands effective.

Stream of Consciousness

In literature, stream of consciousness is a method of narration that describes happenings in the flow of thoughts in the minds of the characters. The term was initially coined by psychologist William James in his research, The Principles of Psychology. He writes:"... it is nothing joined; it flows. A 'river' or a 'stream' is the metaphors by which it is most naturally described. In talking of it hereafter, let's call it the stream of thought, consciousness, or subjective life."Another appropriate term for this device is "interior monologue," where the individual thought processes of a character, associated to his or her actions, are portrayed in the form of a monologue that addresses the character itself. Therefore, it is different from the "dramatic monologue" or "soliloquy," where the speaker addresses the audience or the third person.Examples of Stream of Consciousness in LiteratureThe stream of consciousness style of writing is marked by the sudden rise of thoughts and lack of punctuation. The use of this narration style is generally associated with the modern novelist and short story writers of the 20th century. Let us analyze a few examples of the stream of consciousness narrative technique in literature:Example #1: Ulysses (By James Joyce)James Joyce successfully employs the narrative mode in his novel Ulysses, which describes a day in the life of a middle-aged Jew, Mr. Leopold Broom, living in Dublin, Ireland. Read the following excerpt:"He is young Leopold, as in a retrospective arrangement, a mirror within a mirror (hey, presto!), he beholdeth himself. That young figure of then is seen, precious manly, walking on a nipping morning from the old house in Clambrassil to the high school, his book satchel on him bandolier wise, and in it a goodly hunk of wheaten loaf, a mother's thought."These lines reveal the thoughts of Bloom, as he thinks of the younger Bloom. The self-reflection is achieved by the flow of thoughts that takes him back to his past.Example #2: Mrs. Dalloway (By Virginia Woolf)Another 20th-century writer that followed James Joyce's narrative method was Virginia Woolf. Let us read an excerpt from her novel Mrs. Dalloway:"What a lark! What a plunge! For so it always seemed to me when, with a little squeak of the hinges, which I can hear now, I burst open the French windows and plunged at Bourton into the open air. How fresh, how calm, stiller than this of course, the air was in the early morning; like the flap of a wave; the kiss of a wave; chill and sharp and yet (for a girl of eighteen as I then was) solemn, feeling as I did, standing there at the open window, that something awful was about to happen ..."By voicing her internal feelings, the Ms. Woolf gives freedom to the characters to travel back and forth in time. Mrs. Dalloway went out to buy flower for herself, and on the way her thoughts move through the past and present, giving us an insight into the complex nature of her character.Example #3: The British Museum Is Falling Down (By David Lodge) We notice the use of this technique in David Lodge's novel The British Museum Is Falling Down. It is a comic novel that imitates the stream of consciousness narrative techniques of writers like Henry James, James Joyce, and Virginia Woolf. Below is an excerpt from Chapter 3 of the novel:"It partook, he thought, shifting his weight in the saddle, of metempsychosis, the way his humble life fell into moulds prepared by literature. Or was it, he wondered, picking his nose, the result of closely studying the sentence structure of the English novelists? One had resigned oneself to having no private language any more, but one had clung wistfully to the illusion of a personal property of events. A find and fruitless illusion, it seemed, for here, inevitably came the limousine, with its Very Important Personage, or Personages, dimly visible in the interior. The policeman saluted, and the crowd pressed forward, murmuring 'Philip', 'Tony', 'Margaret', 'Prince Andrew'."We see the imitation of the typical structure of the stream-of-conscious narrative technique of Virginia Woolf. We notice the integration of the outer and inner realities in the passage that is so typical of Virginia Woolf, especially the induction of the reporting clauses "he thought," and "he wondered," in the middle of the reported clauses.Function of Stream of Consciousness Stream of consciousness is a style of writing developed by a group of writers at the beginning of the 20th century. It aimed at expressing in words the flow of characters' thoughts and feelings in their minds. The technique aspires to give readers the impression of being inside the minds of the characters. Therefore, the internal view of the minds of the characters sheds light on plot and motivation in the novel.

Synesthesia

In literature, synesthesia refers to a technique adopted by writers to present ideas, characters, or places in such a manner that they appeal to more than one sense, like hearing, sight, smell, and touch at a given time. Generally, the term synesthesia refers to a certain medical condition in which one of the five senses simultaneously stimulates another sense. A person with such a condition may not only see letters of the alphabet, but also associate them with particular scents. This happens when the different parts of the brain that are responsible in identifying color, sound, taste, and smell somehow get interlinked, and thus one sense triggers another sense.Everyday Life Examples of SynesthesiaIn everyday language, we find many examples of synesthesia, such as the frequently used adjective "cool." This word is generally associated with temperature. However, in casual conversation, we hear phrases like "cool dress,", "cool color," or "you look cool," wherein the visual sensation is blended with the sense of touch. Moreover, we commonly hear phrases like "loud colors," "frozen silence," "warm colors," and "bitter cold."Examples of Synesthesia in Literature In literature, synesthesia is a figurative use of words that intends to draw out a response from readers by stimulating multiple senses.Example #1: The Divine Comedy (By Dante Alighieri)Dante Alighieri's The Divine Comedy contains a good synesthesia example in literature. In the first canto, the poet tells us about a place called "Inferno." He says,"Back to the region where the sun is silent."Here, Dante binds the sense of sight (sun) with the sense of hearing (silent).Example #2: Ode to a Nightingale (By John Keats)We notice synesthetic imageries in John Keats' Ode to a Nightingale:"Tasting of Flora and the country green,Dance, and Provencal song, and sun burnt mirth!"In the above example, Keats combines visual sensation with the sensations of taste and hearing. In the same poem, he further states:"In some melodious plot,Of beechen green,Singest of summer in full throated ease."Keats associates the act of melodious singing with a plot covered with green beechen trees, and thus connects visual sense with the sense of hearing.Example #3: King Lear (By William Shakespeare) We see Shakespeare employing the synesthetic device in his play King Lear, Act 2, Scene 2:"Thou art a lady: if only to go warm were gorgeous,Why nature needs not what thou gorgeous wear'st,Which scarcely keeps thee warm."In the above excerpt, King Lear makes fun of his daughter Goneril for wearing revealing attire. He associates the word "warm" with "gorgeous," which is an attempt to blend the sense of touch with the sense of sight.Example #4: A Tuft of Flowers (By Robert Frost)Robert Frost, in his poem A Tuft of Flowers, uses synesthesia:"The butterfly and I had lit upon,Nevertheless, a message from the dawn,That made me hear the wakening birds around,And hear his long scythe whispering to the ground..."In the above excerpt, the speaker reveals a blend of sensory experiences he is experiencing. The speaker's visual sense and his sense of hearing make him aware of his surroundings.Example #5: Dying (By Emily Dickinson)Emily Dickinson, in her poem Dying, uses synesthesia:"With blue, uncertain, stumbling buzz,Between the light and me;And then the windows failed, and thencould not see to see."Here, the poetess added a visual element to the buzzing sound "buzz" by describing it as having a blue color.Example #6: The Whole World Over (By Julia Glass)The character Saga, in Julia Glass' novel The Whole World Over, has a condition of synesthesia, in which she seems to sense colors in the words she reads, as illustrated below:"The word would fill her mind for a few minutes with a single color: not an unpleasant sensation but still an intrusion... Patriarch: Brown, she thought, a temple of a word, a shiny red brown, like the surface of a chestnut."These lines are comments spoken by Duffy, who thinks that Saga's synesthesia is a distraction.Function of SynesthesiaWriters employ this device to be creative in communicating their ideas to the readers. It makes their ideas more vivid, and adds more layers of meaning to a text for the readers' pleasure. By blending different senses, writers make their works more interesting and appealing.

Stanza

In poetry, a stanza is a division of four or more lines having a fixed length, meter, or rhyming scheme. Stanzas in poetry are similar to paragraphs in prose. Both stanzas and paragraphs include connected thoughts, and are set off by a space. The number of lines varies in different kinds of stanzas, but it is uncommon for a stanza to have more than twelve lines. The pattern of a stanza is determined by the number of feet in each line, and by its metrical or rhyming scheme.Stanza Examples in English PoetryOn the basis of a fixed number of lines and rhyming scheme, traditional English language poems have the following kinds of stanzas:CoupletTercetQuatrainQuintainSestetLet us make ourselves familiar with the above mentioned kinds of stanzas:CoupletA couplet consists of two rhyming lines having the same meter. Consider the following couplet stanza examples:Example #1: Essay on Criticism (By Alexander Pope)"True wit is nature to advantage dress'd;What oft was thought, but ne'er so well express'd."Example #2: Sonnet II (By Edna St. Vincent Millay)"Whether or not we find what we are seekingis idle, biologically speaking."Example #4: To Science (By Edgar Allan Poe)A rhyming pair of lines in iambic pentameter is known as a "heroic couplet." Initiated by Chaucer, heroic couplets are commonly used in epics and narrative poetry. Among the well known examples of stanza, we find Edgar Allan Poe's sonnet To Science:"Do not all charms flyAt the mere touch of cold philosophy?There was an awful rainbow once in heaven:We know her woof, her texture; she is given"TercetA tercet comprises three lines following a same rhyming scheme a a a, or have a rhyming pattern a b a. Sir Thomas Wyatt introduced tercet in the 16th century.Example #1: Second Satire (By Thomas Wyatt)Read the following tercets from Wyatt's poem Second Satire with a rhyming scheme a b a:"My mother's maids, when they did sew and spin,They sang sometimes a song of the field mouse,That for because their livelihood was but so thin.Would needs go seek her townish sister's house.Would needs She thought herself endured to much pain:The stormy blasts her cave so sore did souse..."Example #2: The Eagle (By Alfred Lord Tennyson)The famous Romantic poet, Alfred Lord Tennyson employed tercets in his poem The Eagle with a rhyming scheme a a a:"He clasps the crag with crooked hands:Close to the sun it lonely lands,Ringed with the azure world, it stands.The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls;He watches from his mountain walls,And like a thunderbolt he falls."Quatrain Quatrain is a form of stanza popularized by a Persian poet, Omar Khayyam, who called it a Rubai. It has common rhyming schemes a a a a, a a b b, a b a b.Example #1: The Eagle (By Alfred Lord Tennyson)"Come, fill the Cup, and in the fire of SpringYour Winter garment of Repentance fling:The Bird of Time has but a little wayTo flutter-and the Bird is on the Wing."Example #2: Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard (By Thomas Gray)"The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,The lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea,The plowman homeward plods his weary way,And leaves the world to darkness and to me."QuitainA quintain, also referred to as "cinquain," is a stanza of five lines, which may be rhymed or unrhymed, and has a typical stress pattern. Its invention is attributed to Adelaide Crapsey.Example #1: November Night (By Adelaide Crapsey)"Listen...With faint dry sound,Like steps of passing ghosts,The leaves, frost-crisp'd, break from the treesAnd fall."SestetSestet is a kind of stanza that consists of six lines. It is the second division of Italian or sonnets of Petrarch, following an octave or the first division comprising eight lines. In a sonnet, a sestet marks a change of emotional state of a poet as they tend to be more subjective in the second part of the sonnet.Example #1: The Better Part (By Mathew Arnold)"So answerest thou; but why not rather say:'Hath man no second life? - Pitch this one high!Sits there no judge in Heaven, our sin to see? -More strictly, then, the inward judge obey!Was Christ a man like us? Ah! Let us tryIf we then, too, can be such men as he!'"The poet answers the rude inquirer passionately as soon as the sestet commences.Short Examples of Stanza in Sentences As I behold the beautiful sunriseIt is like seeing a lovely surprise.A fox and an ant and three dogsSat on a gravestone shooting dice.The fox slipped and fell on ant"Oh no!" said the ant, "there's a fox on me!"Oh old man, play one,Play knick and knack with your thumb,With knack, knack, and paddy whack,Come and give the cat a bone.White birds on the shore:A broken hoarding bangingOn the door.Raindrops on my pageCold breeze blows my paper awayOops! I need it!I once met a fairy who lived on a star.From a stranger prospective I had to move far.I asked her once why she lived on a starShe frowned and replied, how weird you are.Hope knows visionWhere faith sheds lightDare find your wayTo move every day.Red petalsFluttering in the windCherry blossoms.Examples of Stanza in LiteratureExample #1: We Real Cool (By Gwendolyn Brooks)"We real cool. WeLeft school. WeLurk late. WeStrike straight. WeSing sin. WeThin gin. WeJazz June. WeDie soon."See every line in this excerpt ends with the word "we." Here, the poet has used a lot of enjambment. Beginning a sentence in one line, and keeping it moving to the next line, is known as "enjambment," and the poem is written in couplet form.Example #2: Acquainted with the Night (By Robert Frost)"I have been one acquainted with the night.I have walked out in rain — and back in rain.I have outwalked the furthest city light.I have looked down the saddest city lane.I have passed by the watchman on his beatAnd dropped my eyes, unwilling to explain."Here, Frost has used three-line stanzas, also known as "tercets." These stanzas have used a chain rhyme scheme as aba, bcb, cdc, and so on. In the first stanza, the speaker tells that he walks a lot at night, and in the second stanza he feels sad and passed by a watchman, whom he avoids.Example #3: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By S. T. Coleridge)"The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,The furrow followed free;We were the first that ever burstInto that silent sea."The poet has used quatrain (four-line stanza) in the given example. It is one of the most popular forms known as "ballad stanza," which uses a rhyme scheme of abxb, in which the third line does not rhyme. This is called "common meter."Example #4: Ozymandias (By Percy Bysshe Shelley)"And on the pedestal these words appear:'My name is Ozymandias, king of kings:Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!'Nothing beside remains. Round the decayOf that colossal wreck, boundless and bareThe lone and level sands stretch far away."In this given example, Shelley has used iambic pentameter in the second part of his sonnet. This part brings a major shift in poem's direction by using "volta," in which the speaker reveals the inscription that reveals Ozymandias. The rhyme scheme of sestet is flexible. This rhymes as CDCDCD and CDECDE.Function of StanzaStanza divides a poem in such a way that does not harm its balance, but rather adds to the beauty, and to the symmetry of a poem. Moreover, it allows poets to shift their moods, and present different subject matters in their poems.

Anaphora

In writing or speech, the deliberate repetition of the first part of the sentence in order to achieve an artistic effect is known as Anaphora. Anaphora, possibly the oldest literary device, has its roots in Biblical Psalms used to emphasize certain words or phrases. Gradually, Elizabethan and Romantic writers brought this device into practice. Examine the following psalm:"O LORD, rebuke me not in thine anger, neither chasten me in thy hot displeasure.Have mercy upon me, O LORD; for I am weak: O LORD, heal me; for my bones are vexed.My soul is also sore vexed: but thou, O LORD, how long?"The repetition of the phrase "O Lord," attempts to create a spiritual sentiment. This is anaphora.Common Anaphora ExamplesIt is common for us to use anaphora in our everyday speech, to lay emphasis on the idea we want to convey, or for self affirmation. The following are anaphora examples:"Every day, every night, in every way, I am getting better and better.""My life is my purpose. My life is my goal. My life is my inspiration.""Buying diapers for the baby, feeding the baby, playing with the baby: This is what your life is when you have a baby.""I want my money right now, right here, all right?""The wrong person was selected for the wrong job, at the wrong time, for the wrong purpose.""Their property was sold, their homestead was sold, and their everything was sold for want.""Who is to blame, who is to look to, who is to turn to, in a tough situation like this.""In adversity, his close friends left him, his close colleagues left him, and his best close relatives left him.""Everything looked dark and bleak, everything looked gloomy, and everything was under a blanket of mist.""All the people were moving in the same direction; all the people were thinking about the same thing; and all the people were discussing the same topic.""After a long term of studies, the students wanted to go home, they wanted to play, and they wanted to meet their parents and friends.""The players were much exited for the tour; the players wished to do a lot of shopping; the players planned to go sightseeing.""The young writer was given the award for his best seller. The young writer was exited to get the reward, and he decided to celebrate the occasion in a fitting manner.""Tell them to be good, tell them to follow their elders, and tell them to mind their manners.""The young athlete was in a decent uniform, and wanted to perform very well.""My mother liked the house very much, but she couldn't buy it.""An apple fell on the head of a peasant, but he couldn't grasp the laws of motion.""The search party barely got to the middle of the desert, when a storm overtook it.""The film was based on a true story, but it failed to get viewers' attention."Examples of Anaphora in Literature Example # 1: Richard II, Act 2, Scene 1 (By William Shakespeare)"This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England,This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings [. . .]This land of such dear souls, this dear dear land,"Here, Shakespeare does not disappoint us in the use of anaphora. The repetition of the word "this" creates an emotional effect on the readers, particularly those who are English. Further, it highlights the significance of England. The repetition of the word "dear" shows the writer's emotional attachment to the land, and expects to elicit a similar response from the readers as well.Example # 2: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens)"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair."The repetitive structure used in the above lines make it the most memorable and remarkable start of a narrative ever achieved by a writer. The word "it" - repeated all the way through the passage - makes the reader focus more on the traits of the "age" they are reading about.Example # 3: Tintern Abbey (By William Wordsworth)This technique is employed by William Wordsworth in "Tintern Abbey":"Five years have passed;Five summers, with the length ofFive long winters! and again I hear these waters..."Wordsworth also employs the technique of anaphora in this piece. The repetition of the word "five" at the beginning of each line gives melody to the lines, which matches well with its nostalgic tone.Example # 4: The Tyger (By William Blake)"What the hammer? what the chain?In what furnace was thy brain?What the anvil? what dread graspDare its deadly terrors clasp?"The repetition of a series of questions, which starts with the query, "what," creates a rhythm that elicits the effect of awe in readers.Example # 5: WWII Speech (By Winston Churchill)Politicians frequently use anaphora as a rhetorical device, in their addresses and political speeches, to evoke passion among the audience. Read an excerpt from Winston Churchill's speech during the Second World War:"We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender."This extract from Winston Churchill's speech is full of anaphoric examples in which the speaker has spoken the phrase "we shall" several times to refer to the plural form that he is using for the whole nation.The repetitive structures in the above passage suggest the importance of the war for England. Moreover, it inspires patriotic sentiments among the masses.Example # 6: I have a Dream (By Martin Luther King Jr.)"Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed."This extract from I have a Dream contains the repetition of the phrase "go back to" many time. The whole speech is full of the anaphoric example.Function of AnaphoraApart from the function of giving prominence to certain ideas, the use of anaphora in literature adds rhythm, thus making it more pleasurable to read, and easier to remember. As a literary device, anaphora serves the purpose of giving artistic effect to passages of prose and poetry.As a rhetorical device, anaphora is used to appeal to the emotions of the audience, in order to persuade, inspire, motivate, and encourage them.

Situational Irony

Situational irony is a literary device that you can easily identify in literary works. Simply, it occurs when incongruity appears between expectations of something to happen, and what actually happens instead. Thus, something entirely different happens from what audience may be expecting, or the final outcome is opposite to what the audience is expecting. Situational irony generally includes sharp contrasts and contradictions. The purpose of ironic situations is to allow the readers to make a distinction between appearances and realities, and eventually associate them to the theme of a story. Examples of Situational Irony from LiteratureExample #1: Harry Potter (By J. K. Rowling)The Harry Potter series is one of the most popular novel series having employed situational irony. Through seven novels, the audience believes that Harry can kill Voldemort, the evil lord. However, the audience is thrown off guard near the end of this series when it becomes clear that Harry must allow the evil lord to kill him, so that Voldemort's soul could become mortal once again. Hence, Harry allows himself to be killed in order to defeat Voldemort, which is exactly the opposite of the audience's expectations. By using situational irony, Rowling has done a great job of adding a twist to the story to further a complex conflict.Example #2: The Story of an Hour (By Kate Chopin)A very famous example of this form of irony occurs toward the end of the short story, The story of an Hour, by Kate Chopin. In this story, the wife of Mr. Brently comes to know that he is no more alive and has died from an accident, so she feels contended to live a long life of freedom with no restrictions. However, at the end of the tale, her husband comes back unexpectedly and, upon seeing him, instantly she dies from shock.Example #3: The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (By L. Frank Baum) The whole story of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz presents a case of situational irony. Dorothy goes to the wizard in order to find a way home, only to learn that she is capable of doing so herself. Scarecrow wished to become intelligent, but he discovers himself a perfect genius. Woodsman considers himself as not capable of love; nevertheless he learns that he has a good heart. Lion appears as a coward, and turns out to be extremely fearless and courageous.Example #4: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)Romeo strives to bring out peace between Tybalt and Mercutio, and eventually between the Capulets and the Montagues. However, Mercutio's death, and subsequently Romeo's pledge to kill Tybalt, escalate a situation leading to his banishment, and finally to the death of both Romeo and Juliet.Example #5: The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock (By T. S. Eliot)Eliot makes comparison between an evening with "a patient etherized upon a table." By portraying a beautiful natural image, and comparing it with a painful and difficult medical procedure of the modern world, the poet makes use of situational irony for depicting a natural beauty's loss in the corrupted world.Example #6 The Necklace (By Guy de Maupassant)The plot of de Maupassant's entire short story The Necklace is an example of situational irony. For keeping up appearances, the leading character, Mathilda, borrows a necklace from a wealthy friend but loses it. In order to return her friend's necklace, Mathilda and her husband replace this jewel with another expensive one, however due to this replacement they went through a serious financial crisis. Years later, Mathilda meets this friend again, and learns that the jewelry she replaced with real and costly gemstones was merely a costume and artificial piece of jewelry.Function of Situational Irony The function of situational irony is to lay emphasis on important scenes and make strange and unusual images vivid. It creates an unexpected turn at the end of a story, and makes audience laugh or cry. Therefore, situational irony could be tragic or funny. Usually writers employ strong word connections with situational irony and add fresh thoughts, variations, and embellishments to their works. It may range from the most comic to the most tragic situations. Its comical use usually creates an unexpected turnaround in a plot for the betterment. Sometimes, these forms of irony occur because people identify certain events and situations as unfair or odd.

Semantic

Semantics is one of the important branches of linguistics, and deals with interpretation and meaning of the words, sentence structure, and symbols. It deals with the reading comprehension of the readers, in how they understand others and their interpretations. In addition, semantics constructs a relation between adjoining words and clarifies the sense of a sentence, whether the meanings of words are literal or figurative. Types of SemanticsThere are two types of Semantics:Connotative SemanticWhen a word suggests a set of associations, or is an imaginative or emotional suggestion connected with the words, while readers can relate to such associations. Simply, it represents figurative meaning. Usually poets use this type of meaning in their poetry.Denotative SemanticIt suggests the literal, explicit, or dictionary meanings of the words, without using associated meanings. It also uses symbols in writing that suggest expressions of writers, such as an exclamation mark, quotation mark, apostrophe, colon, or quotation mark.Examples of Semantics in Literature Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) Juliet:"O, be some other name!What's in a name? that which we call a roseBy any other name would smell as sweet;So Romeo would, were he not Romeo call'd ..."The above-mentioned quote is, in fact, conveying figurative meaning. However, its surrounding text clarifies the meaning. Juliet is using metaphoric language, arguing with Romeo that his family name is not important to her, because she only wants Romeo.Example #2: A Portrait of An Artist As a Young Man (By James Joyce)The use of denotation or general meaning can be seen in the very first chapter of James Joyce's A Portrait of An Artist As a Young Man, when Stephen expresses his feelings for his mother and father saying:"His mother had a nicer smell than his father."This sentence is conveying a denotative or general meaning that he likes his mother more than his father. Thus the meaning is understandable and acceptable for all types of readers around the world. Hence, the general acceptability for all people is the major factor for communicating with people successfully.Example #3: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)In the famous soliloquy of Prince Hamlet, "To be or not to be," William Shakespeare has used a word that we use quite differently these days. Hamlet says:"When we have shuffled off this mortal coil ..."Here, "mortal coil" carries a connotative meaning that suggests life, as Hamlet compares death to sleep. However, we are using coils in different connection today, which means a series of spirals tightly joined together.Example #4: Hedda Gabler (By Henrik Ibsen)We can understand the use of semantics in the beginning of Hedda Gabler, in which Bertha mentions Hedda, saying:"She's real lady. Wants everything just so."This sentence lays emphasis on the implication that, unlike Hedda, other women are not real. That they neither have any discipline, nor structure in the schedules of their lives. In another dialogue, she says:"But, Lord! I never dreamed I'd live to see a match between her and master George."Here, an exclamation mark highlights Bertha's feelings of curiosity and astonishment. Her word choice, "never dreamed," shows her intensity of surprising emotions about class inequality.Example #5: Night (By William Blake)We can find use of semantic features in poetry more elaborately, as these features describe the meanings of sentences, phrases, and words, and make relations between them. These features include personification, simile, imagery, metaphor, and allusion. For example, in William Blake's poem Night, he uses all semantic features. The poet employs a simile to compare the beauty of the moon with a flower,"The moon like a flower ..."Then he uses a covert comparison between unlike things:"And there the lion's ruddy eyesShall flow with tears of gold ..."Here, the phrase "tears of gold" illustrates the value of tears. Then, we see personification:"The feet of angels bright ..."and imagery:"The sun descending in the west,The evening star does shine..."This paints a picture in the minds of readers.Function of SemanticsThe purpose of semantics is to propose exact meanings of words and phrases, and remove confusion, which might lead the readers to believe a word has many possible meanings. It makes a relationship between a word and the sentence through their meanings. Besides, semantics enable the readers to explore a sense of the meaning because, if we remove or change the place of a single word from the sentence, it will change the entire meaning, or else the sentence will become anomalous. Hence, the sense relation inside a sentence is very important, as a single word does not carry any sense or meaning.

Sensory Language

Sensory Language is a word(s) used to invoke mental images and visualize the story or poem. While Imagery is a literary device that appeals to the reader's senses, Sensory Language is a writing style and how the writers use the words to create images for the readers. The writers present their emotions, thoughts, and ideas in a way that they tempt the reader's imagination. Although it is often inserted to uplift the reader's imagination, it and plays a vital role in advancing the story or enhancing a poem. Literally, sensory language is a phrase of two words; sensory and language. It means using language to create mental pictures that appeal to the sense of sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch.Examples of Sensory Language from LiteratureExample #1 I Know Why the Caged Birds Sings by Maya Angelou"But a bird that stalksDown his narrow cageCan seldom see throughHis bars of rageHis wings are clipped andHis feet are tiedSo he opens his throat to sing.The caged bird singsWith a fearful trillOf things unknownBut longed for stillAnd his tune is heardOn the distant hillFor the caged birdSings of freedom."The poem is about the racial segregation and social discrimination prevalent in American society against black people. Using the metaphor of free birds, she has put forth the ideas of freedom, liberty, and justice. As sensory language pertains to the five senses, this poem is loaded with different images. The images for example, "free bird" and "back of wind" appeal to the sense of sight and feeling. Similarly, images such as, "orange sun rays" and "throat to sing" appeals to the sense of sight and hearing.Example #2 Kubla Khan by Samuel Taylor Coleridge "A damsel with a dulcimerIn a vision once I saw:It was an Abyssinian maidAnd on her dulcimer she played,Singing of Mount Abora.Could I revive within meHer symphony and song,To such a deep delight 'twould win me,That with music loud and long,I would build that dome in air,That sunny dome! those caves of ice!And all who heard should see them there,And all should cry, Beware! Beware!His flashing eyes, his floating hair!Weave a circle round him thrice,And close your eyes with holy dreadFor he on honey-dew hath fed,And drunk the milk of Paradise."In Kubla Khan, the poet has artistically captured the alluring beauty of the extravagant palace about which he has read. He has skillfully painted a lively and complete picture of the palace, Xanadu. However, with the use of sensory language, Coleridge has added more to the beauty and grandeur of this majestic palace. This poem is rich with classical words and vivid images such as, "incense-bearing tree" appeals to the sense of smell. "The shadow of the doom of pleasure" that "floated midway on the waves" makes the reader visualize the enchanting scene. Also, the damsel with the dulcimer playing her song "loud and long" appeals to the sense of hearing.Example #3 Library of Babel by Jorge Luis Borges "The universe (which others call the Library) is composed of an indefinite, perhaps infinite number of hexagonal galleries. In the center of each gallery is a ventilation shaft, bounded by a low railing. From any hexagon one can see the floors above and below-one after another, endlessly. The arrangement of the galleries is always the same: Twenty bookshelves, five to each side, line four of the hexagon's six sides; the height of the bookshelves, floor to ceiling, is hardly greater than the height of a normal librarian. One of the hexagon's free sides opens onto a narrow sort of vestibule, which in turn opens onto another gallery, identical to the first-identical in fact to all."Luis Borges has beautifully presented a metaphorical replica of the universe in this excellent piece of literature. His library is different from the libraries people encounter in the world. A reader can find millions of books no matter they are completed or not. On the one hand, some extracts make sense while on the other hand, it comprises texts that are completely absurd. However, the use of sensory language has added more to the rich description of this endless library. For example, "floors above and below-one after another,", "Twenty bookshelves," and "in turn opens onto another gallery" are the powerful images pertain to the sense of sight.Example #4 Macbeth by William Shakespeare, Act-I, Scene-I, Lines 1- 13First Witch: When shall we three meet againIn thunder, lightning, or in rain?Second Witch: When the hurly-burly's done,When the battle's lost and won.Third Witch: That will be ere the set of sun.First Witch: Where the place?Second Witch: Upon the heath.Third Witch: There to meet with Macbeth.First Witch: I come, grimalkin!Second Witch: Paddock calls.Third Witch: Anon!ALL Fair is foul, and foul is fair:Hover through the fog and filthy air.This is the opening scene of the play, Macbeth, where three witches appear to discuss their next meeting point. They decide to meet Macbeth in an open place where several battles have taken place. Shakespeare has used a cascade of images to set this dramatic scene. For example, "thunder" is used to make the readers conjure up an auditory sense in their mind and words like, "lightening" and "ere the set of sun" appeal to the sense of sight.Sensory Language Meaning and Function Sensory language is used to present a graphic presentation of an idea or thought. It provides readers with an opportunity to get absorbed in the text and experience as a character or an action sequence is described using Sensory Language. Also, using sensory details help writers to sketch a vivid experience for the audience.

Adage

An adage is a short, pointed, and memorable saying that is based on facts, and which is considered a veritable truth by the majority of people. Famous adages become popular due to their usage over a long period of time. In fact, an adage expresses a general fact or truth about life, which becomes more and more popular before it is accepted as a universal truth. For instance, "God helps those who help themselves" is now considered a universal truth because of its usage throughout human history. Often repeated sayings and quotes become adages that pass on to many generations. However, some adages are metaphoric, having hidden meanings, and embody common observations. Sometimes proverbs are referred as adages, but there is a slight difference.Adage vs. ProverbBoth of these terms represent sayings that convey a deeper meaning. However, there are some differences between them. A proverb has a practical aspect, but it is a common belief that an adage is true to have been tested in various ages. The adage is a more general term than a proverb; therefore, proverbs could be adages, in the manner that Merriam Webster defines proverbs as adages. Adages are general truths with universal applications, reflecting wisdom; whereas proverbs are more traditional and are often used in everyday speeches.Examples of Adage from Literature Many authors have employed adages in their works, such as C.S Lewis, Geoffrey Chaucer, William Shakespeare, Benjamin Franklin, J.K. Rowling, Aesop, George Bernard Shaw, Friedrich Nietzsche, and many others.Example #1: In Memoriam (by Alfred Lord Tennyson)Tis better to have loved and lostThan never to have loved at all.In these lines, Tennyson is giving advice about having love in one's life, which is a truth used in literary texts even today.Example #2: As You Like It (by William Shakespeare)All the world's a stage,And all the men and women merely players.They have their exits and their entrances,And one man in his time plays many parts,His acts being seven ages.This is the most frequently quoted adage by Shakespeare. Here he has made a comparison between the world and the stage, as well as between life and play. He also refers to seven stages in the lives of humans as seven ages of humans.Example #3: The Tortoise and the Hare (by Aesop) "Things are not always what they seem."(From The Bee-Keeper and the Bees)"Appearances often are deceiving."(From The Wolf in Sheep's Clothing)"Slow and steady wins the race."(From The Tortoise and the Hare)The following lines are very popular in literature as well as in everyday use. People use these adages in their common speeches as witty sayings.Example #4: Adagia (by Desiderius Erasmus)"God helps those who help themselves.""Put the cart before the horse.""Call a spade a spade."Erasmus is famous for using adages in his works. The given lines are commonly used sayings in daily conversation. These are now accepted as a universal truths.Example #5: The Holy Bible (by Multiple Authors)"Don't cast your pearls before swine." - Matthew 7:6"More blessed to give than to receive." - Acts 20:35"Pride goes before a fall." - Proverbs 16:18"To everything there is a season." - Ecclesiastes 3:1The Bible has also employed adages with deeper, moral meanings. The purpose of these sayings is to educate, and increase the readers' awareness.Example #6: Poor Richard's Almanack (by Benjamin Franklin)"Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.""Eat to live, and not live to eat.""To err is human, to repent divine; to persist devilish.""Well done is better than well said.""A penny saved is a penny earned."Franklin published this book on a yearly basis from 1732-1758, which became popular due to extensive use of witty adages and wordplay. These are some popular adages used to this day.Function of AdageAdages are not only found in literature, but also in advertising and scripts of films. The first major function of adage is to give awareness to the readers about some facts of life. Secondly, adages are applicable in any circumstance or situation, as they convey deeper meanings of wisdom. Most of these sayings are witty and suggest a moral lesson, having long lasting impacts of universal application of the truths contained in them. They become imprinted on the minds of the users. Moreover, they sum up the moral lesson of a story such as in Aesop's Fables. The authors use this device to make their works effective, compact and rich.

Figure of Speech

A figure of speech is a phrase or word having different meanings than its literal meanings. It conveys meaning by identifying or comparing one thing to another, which has connotation or meaning familiar to the audience. That is why it is helpful in creating vivid rhetorical effect. Types of figures of SpeechThere are many types of figures of speech. Here are a few of them with detailed descriptions:PersonificationIt occurs when a writer gives human traits to non-human or inanimate objects. It is similar to metaphors and similes that also use comparison between two objects. For instance,"Hadn't she felt it in every touch of the sunshine, as its golden finger-tips pressed her lids open and wound their way through her hair?"("The Mother's Recompense" by Edith Wharton)In the above lines, the speaker is personifying sunshine as it has finger tips that wound their way into her hair. This is trait of using finger-tips in hair is a human one.Understatement and HyperboleThese two figures of speech are opposite to each other. Hyperbole uses extreme exaggeration. It exaggerates to lay emphasis on a certain quality or feature. It stirs up emotions among the readers, these emotions could be about happiness, romance, inspiration, laughter or sadness.I'll love you, dear, I'll love youTill China and Africa meet,And the river jumps over the mountainAnd the salmon sing in the street."("As I Walked Out One Evening" by W.H. Auden)In this poem, Auden has used hyperbole to stress on how long his love his beloved would last. Just imagine when China and Africa would meet and can river jump up over the mountains? How salmon can be intelligent enough so that it could sing and evolve enough and walk the streets?Whereas understatement uses less than whatever is intended, such as,"You killed my family. And I don't like that kind of thing."("The Chosen One" by Boon Collins and Rob Schneider)In this line, the speaker is using an understatement because someone has killed his family and he is just taking it very normal like nothing serious has happened.Simile It is a type of comparison between things or objects by using "as" or "like." See the following example:My heart is like a singing birdWhose nest is in a water'd shoot;My heart is like an apple-treeMy heart is like a rainbow shell...("A Birthday" by Christina Rossetti)Rossetti has used simile thrice in this part of the poem, comparing her heart to a "singing bird", "an apple-tree", and a rainbow shell." The poet makes comparison of heart to a happy bird in a nest, an apple tree full with fruits and a beautiful shell in the sea, full of peace and joy.MetaphorMetaphor is comparing two unlike objects or things, which may have some common qualities.Presentiment - is that long shadow - on the lawn -Indicative that Suns go down -The notice to the startled GrassThat Darkness - is about to pass -("Presentiment is that long shadow on the lawn" by Emily Dickinson)In this example, Dickinson presents presentiment as a shadow. Presentiment actually means anxiety or foreboding, which she calls a shadow. In fact, she makes compares it with shadow to provide a better description of anxiety that could creep up in a person's life and cause fear.PunPun is the manipulation of words that have more than one meanings. It brings humor in an expression.Whoever hath her wish, thou hast thy Will,And Will to boot, and Will in overplus;("Sonnet 135" by William Shakespeare)See the use of odd grammar rule, which is the capitalization of word "Will." Usually in the middle of a line or sentence, writers capitalize a name. Here it is the first name of Shakespeare. It means he has created pun of his own name.Function of Figure of Speech Figure of speech is not only used to embellish the language, but also cause a moment of excitement when reading. It is used equally in writing as well as in speech. It, in fact, provides emphasis, clarity or freshness to expression. Clarity, however, may sometimes suffer because a figure of speech introduces double meanings such as connotative and denotative meanings. It also strengthens the creative expression and description along with making the language more graphic, pointed and vivid.

Analytical Essay

Analytical implies the breaking down of something into parts, or the discussion of something in a way that it becomes a dissection of the whole. An analytical type of essay differs from other types of essays in that its primary goal is to explain something bit by bit to enhance understanding. Most of the times, an analytical essay is written about the analysis of a text, or a process, or an idea. In literature, however, it is a critical analysis of some literary text which is done to enhance its understanding.Difference Between an Analytical Essay and a Critical EssayAn analytical essay is just an analysis of a literary text. By contrast, a critical essay involves, not only an analysis of the text in question, but also dissection of the literary terms and devices used by the author to make his meanings clear. The critical essay also explains the functions of the literary terms used, and evaluates their usage, and whether they have achieved the intended purposes or not.Types of Analytical Essay Cause and Effect: One way of analyzing something is to discuss the cause of something, and its effect on other things.Comparison and Contrast: Another way of analyzing something is to compare and contrast things among themselves.Classification: Classification is yet another method of analyzing things, to learn of their nature.Process: Process is also a type of analysis writing.Definition: Defining things is also a way of analyzing the nature of things.Examples of Analytical Essay in LiteratureExample #1: Liposuction: The Key to Energy Independence (by Barbara Ehrenreich)"I say to my fellow humans: It's time to stop feeding off the dead and grow up! I don't know about food, but I have a plan for achieving fuel self-sufficiency in less time than it takes to say 'Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.' The idea came to me from reports of the growing crime of French fry oil theft: Certain desperate individuals are stealing restaurants' discarded cooking oil, which can then be used to fuel cars. So the idea is: why not skip the French fry phase and harvest high-energy hydrocarbons right from ourselves?"This is an excerpt from the essay of Barbara Ehrenreich, in which she has made comparison and contrast between human beings and animals, regarding food choices. This is a good analysis of the food we use.Example #2: Freedom (by Joyce M. Jarett)"On the first day of school, I was escorted by hordes of national guardsmen. Like a funeral procession, the steady stream of official-looking cars followed me to the campus. Some patrolmen were parked near campus gates, while others, with guns strapped to their sides, stood near building entrances. Though many of my escorts had given me smiles of support, still I was not prepared for what I encountered upon entering my new school."This is a paragraph from a process analysis. The author, Joyce M. Jaret, has beautifully described her experience of the security in this paragraph, and how it is deployed when an important figure faces security issues in his life. This is an analysis of the process of security deployment.Example #3: The Ways of Meeting Oppression (by Martin Luther King, Jr.) "The third way open to oppressed people in their quest for freedom is the way of nonviolent resistance. Like the synthesis in Hegelian philosophy, the principle of nonviolent resistance seeks to reconcile the truths of two opposites—the acquiescence and violence—while avoiding the extremes and immoralities of both. The nonviolent resister agrees with the person who acquiesces that one should not be physically aggressive toward his opponent; but he balances the equation by agreeing with the person of violence that evil must be resisted. He avoids the nonresistance of the former and the violent resistance of the latter. With nonviolent resistance, no individual or group need submit to any wrong, nor need anyone resort to violence in order to right a wrong."This is the analysis by classification that Marth Luther King, a famous human rights activist, has done regarding oppression against African Americans.Function of Analytical EssayAn analytical essay dissects something such as a concept, an idea, a thing, or even a character. Its major aim is to enhance the understanding of readers. An analysis could be done through a process, definition, classification and division, or comparison and contrast. The thing or idea is broken into several parts, through classification and division, and then analyzed. A process is broken into several steps for analysis. Not only do analytical essays enhance understanding, but they also make readers aware of minute details of things.

Bandwagon

Bandwagon is a persuasive technique and a type of propaganda through which a writer persuades his readers, so that the majority could agree with the argument of the writer. He does this by suggesting that, since the majority agrees, the reader should too. For instance, "Everyone is voting for David, so definitely he is the best presidential candidate," is intended to convince others. The term bandwagon means, to "jump on the bandwagon," to follow what others are doing, or to conform. While listening to a politician, or reading a book, it is often observed that the speaker or the writer tries to encourage the audience to think or act in a particular way because others are doing that, despite having ideas and beliefs of their own.Examples of Bandwagon in LiteratureExample #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell)In the novel Animal Farm, George Orwell uses bandwagon technique effectively. At the very beginning, a song "Beasts of England" seems to be very appealing and catchy, because everyone picks it up so swiftly as if they like the idea. Again, we see this technique when Boxer, a powerful and loyal animal on the farm, promotes bandwagon propaganda inadvertently with his work ethics, as he always tries to work hard. He maintains the view that, "If Comrade Napoleon says it, it must be right." This shows he wishes to follow Comrade Napoleon and his ideas.Bandwagon technique continues to exist as the animals only accept the ideals and changing commandments because other animals are doing the same. Another bandwagon technique comes out when Mollie is curious to know whether she will be able to wear precious ribbons and have sugar after Rebellion. However, Snowball informs her that they symbolize slavery and Mollie accepts this without any resistance, although she never believes it.Example #2: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare)In William Shakespeare's play, Julius Caesar, Mark Antony delivers his famous speech at the funeral of Caesar, which is a brilliant example of bandwagon. Mark Antony has delivered this magnificent speech to win over the favor of the audience. He negates excuses that Brutus had made, though he had calmed down the public and persuaded them that Caesar had to die for their good.Antony comes forward and tells them that he hopes the crowd would not riot, and convinces them that Cassius and Brutus were murderers and responsible for ripping apart the town. Speaking on a personal level, Antony grabs public attention as he leaves his position and, being a commoner saying, "Friends, Romans, Countrymen."Example #3: The Crucible (By Arthur Miller) Abigail: "I go back to Jesus; I kiss His hand. I saw Sarah Good with the Devil! I saw Goody Osburn with the Devil! I saw Bridget Bishop with the Devil!"Betty: "I saw George Jacobs with the Devil! I saw Goody Howe with the Devil!...I saw Martha Bellow with the Devil!"Abigail: "I saw Goody Sibber with the Devil!"Putnam: "The marshal, I'll call the marshal!"Betty: "I saw Alice Barrow with the Devil!"Hale: "Let the marshal bring irons!"In this excerpt, Abigail Williams claims that she has seen many women with the devil. While she proposes this idea, suddenly all of the girls jump on the bandwagon, and start following Abigail by accusing those women whom they dislike.Example #4: 1984 (By George Orwell)George Orwell uses bandwagon technique in his novel, 1984. In this novel, the leading party uses fear techniques to manipulate people to follow the majority. The bandwagon technique plays effectively on their feelings of isolation and loneliness. The party ensures that nobody is trustworthy. They even turn the children against their parents. No one can have relationships without their permission.Its best example is "Two Minute Hate" - a particular time in which everyone shouts at Goldstein, the enemy of the party. Everyone participates in this bandwagon and consequently intense hatred overwhelms Winston, who also takes part and produce feelings of achievement in his heart.Function of Bandwagon The purpose of this technique is to make the audience think and act in a way that the majority follows. This tendency of following the beliefs and actions of others occurs when an audience sees others are also conforming. We see its usage in literature, politics, and advertisements. Bandwagon is in fact a good approach for persuasive writing that successfully works on human minds and psychology. Conversely, writers often use it as a pressure tactic by creating a sense of fear among the readers if they do not agree with their beliefs.

Climax

Climax, a Greek term meaning "ladder," is that particular point in a narrative at which the conflict or tension hits the highest point. It is a structural part of a plot, and is at times referred to as a "crisis." It is a decisive moment or a turning point in a storyline at which the rising action turns around into a falling action. Thus, a climax is the point at which a conflict or crisis reaches its peak, then calls for a resolution or denouement (conclusion). In a five-act play, the climax is close to the conclusion of act 3. Later in the 19th century, five-act plays were replaced by three-act plays, and the climax was placed close to the conclusion or at the end of the play. Examples of Climax in LiteratureLet us analyze a few climax examples in literature:Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)In William Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet, the story reaches its climax in Act 3. In the first scene of the act, Romeo challenges Tybalt to a duel after he (Tybalt) killed Mercutio:"And fire-eyed fury be my conduct now!Now, Tybalt, take the 'villain' back againThat late thou gavest me; for Mercutio's soulIs but a little way above our heads ..."As soon as he killed Tybalt, Romeo says:"O! I am Fortune's Fool!"He realizes that he has killed his wife's cousin. This juncture in the play is a climax, as the audience wonders how Romeo would get out of this terrible situation. Similarly, it qualifies as a climax because, after this act, all the prior conflicts start to be resolved, and mysteries unfold themselves, thus moving the story toward its logical conclusion during the coming scenes.Example #2: The Heart of Darkness (By Joseph Conrad)In Joseph Conrad's novel The Heart of Darkness, the narrative reaches its climax when Marlowe starts his journey in his steam boat, in the direction of the inner station, and his final discovery upon reaching the station and meeting "Kurtz." He was shocked to discover that Kurtz had abandoned all norms and morals of his civilization, after giving in to the savage customs of the wild Congo. Following this point in the novel, the mystery surrounding Kurtz is unfolded, and the questions in the mind of Marlow find their answers automatically when he sees the real situation.Climax as a Stylistic Device As a stylistic device, the term climax refers to a literary device in which words, phrases, and clauses are arranged in an order to increase their importance within the sentence. The following are examples of climax as a stylistic device:Example #3: The Passionate Pilgrim (By William Shakespeare) See how William Shakespeare achieves climax in the passage below, taken from his Sonnet The Passionate Pilgrim:"Beauty is but a vain and doubtful good;A shining gloss that vadeth suddenly;A flower that dies when first it gins to bud;A brittle glass that's broken presently:A doubtful good, a gloss, a glass, a flower,Lost, vaded, broken, dead within an hour."The phrase "dead within an hour" is placed at the very end, as it marks the climax of the fate of beauty, which he introduces as "a vain and doubtful good."Example #4: I Have a Dream speech (By Martin Luther King, Jr.)"This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the unalienable Rights of Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."This line from Martin Luther King's famous speech, I Have a Dream, qualifies as the climax of the speech. It criticizes and rejects racial discrimination suffered by black Americans at the hands of white Americans.Function of ClimaxA climax, when used as a plot device, helps readers understand the significance of the previously rising action to the point in the plot where the conflict reaches its peak. The climax of the story makes readers mentally prepared for the resolution of the conflict. Hence, it is important to the plot structure of a story. Moreover, climax is used as a stylistic device or a figure of speech to render balance and brevity to speech or writing. Being pre-employed, it qualifies itself as a powerful tool that can instantly capture the undivided attention of listeners and readers alike. Hence, its importance cannot be underestimated.

Coherence

Coherence is a Latin word, meaning "to stick together." In a composition, coherence is a literary technique that refers to logical connections, which listeners or readers perceive in an oral or written text. In other words, it is a written or spoken piece that is not only consistent and logical, but also unified and meaningful. It makes sense when read or listened to as a whole. The structure of a coherent paragraph could be general to particular and particular to general or any other format. Types of CoherenceLocal Level Coherent TextIn this type of text, coherence occurs within small portions of a passage or a text.Global level Coherent TextIn this type of text, coherence takes place within the whole text of a story or essay, rather than in its few parts.Examples of Coherence in Literature Example #1: One Man's Meat (by E.B. White)"Scientific agriculture, however sound in principle, often seems strangely unrelated to, and unaware of, the vital, grueling job of making a living by farming. Farmers sense this quality in it as they study their bulletins, just as a poor man senses in a rich man an incomprehension of his own problems. The farmer of today knows, for example, that manure loses some of its value when exposed to the weather ... But he knows also that to make hay he needs settled weather - better weather than you usually get in June."This is a global level coherent text passage in which White has wonderfully unified the sentences to make it a whole. He has started the passage with a general topic, scientific agriculture, but moved it to a specific text about farmers and their roles.Example #2: A Tale of Two Cities (by Charles Dickens)"The wine was red wine, and had stained the ground of the narrow street in the suburb of Saint Antoine, in Paris, where it was spilled. It had stained many hands, too, and many faces, and many naked feet, and many wooden shoes. The hands of the man who sawed the wood, left red marks on the billets; and the forehead of the woman who nursed her baby, was stained with the stain of the old rag she wound about her head again. Those who had been greedy with the staves of the cask ... scrawled upon a wall with his finger dipped in muddy wine-lees—BLOOD."Taken from the novel, A Tale of Two Cities, this passage's emphasis is on the idea of staining, and scrawling the word "blood," which further brings coherence into the lines. The connection is thus made through the appearance of Wood-Sawyer, a man who scares Lucie later. This is how it achieves coherence.Example #3: Animal Farm (by George Orwell) "Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable, laborious, and short. We are born, we are given just so much food as will keep the breath in our bodies, and those of us who are capable of it are forced to work to the last atom of our strength ..."No animal in England knows the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old. The life of an animal is misery and slavery: that is the plain truth."Through the speech of the Old Major, Orwell starts the passage about the miserable nature of the life of animals on the animal farm, and then he inspires them to think about how to safeguard their interests on the farm. The entire paragraph is an example of coherent speech.Example #4: Unpopular Essays (by Bertrand Russell)"The word "philosophy" is one of which the meaning is by no means fixed. Like the word "religion," it has one sense when used to describe certain features of historical cultures, and another when used to denote a study or an attitude of mind which is considered desirable in the present day. Philosophy, as pursued in the universities of the Western democratic world, is, at least in intention, part of the pursuit of knowledge, aiming at the same kind of detachment as is sought in science ..."See how brilliantly Russell has connected the ideas of philosophy and politics, by moving from a general to a specific topic, with sentences connecting one to another, creating coherence.FunctionCoherence links the sentences of a work with one another. This may be done with paragraphs, making sure that each statement logically connects with the one preceding it, making the text easier for the readers to understand and follow. Also, ordering thoughts in a sequence helps the reader to move from one point to the next smoothly. As all of the sentences relate back to the topic, the thoughts and ideas flow smoothly.

Comedy

Comedy is a literary genre and a type of dramatic work that is amusing and satirical in its tone, mostly having a cheerful ending. The motif of this dramatic work is triumph over unpleasant circumstance by creating comic effects, resulting in a happy or successful conclusion. Thus, the purpose of comedy is to amuse the audience. Comedy has multiple sub-genres depending upon the source of the humor, context in which an author delivers dialogues, and delivery methods, which include farce, satire, and burlesque. Tragedy is opposite to comedy, as tragedy deals with sorrowful and tragic events in a story.Types of ComedyThere are five types of comedy in literature:Romantic ComedyRomantic comedy involves a theme of love leading to a happy conclusion. We find romantic comedy in Shakespearean plays and some Elizabethan contemporaries. These plays are concerned with idealized love affairs. It is a fact that true love never runs smoothly; however, love overcomes difficulties and ends in a happy union.Comedy of HumorsBen Johnson is the first dramatist who conceived and popularized this dramatic genre during the late sixteenth century. The term humor derives from the Latin word humor, which means "liquid." It comes from a theory that the human body has four liquids, or humors, which include phelgm, blood, yellow bile, and black bile. It explains that, when human beings have a balance of these humors in their bodies, they remain healthy.Comedy of Manners This form of dramatic genre deals with intrigues and relations of ladies and gentlemen living in a sophisticated society. This form relies upon high comedy, derived from sparkle and wit of dialogues, violations of social traditions, and good manners, by nonsense characters like jealous husbands, wives, and foppish dandies. We find its use in Restoration dramatists, particularly in the works of Wycherley and Congreve.Sentimental ComedySentimental drama contains both comedy and sentimental tragedy. It appears in literary circles due to reaction of the middle class against obscenity and indecency of Restoration Comedy of Manners. This form, which incorporates scenes with extreme emotions evoking excessive pity, gained popularity among the middle class audiences in the eighteenth century.TragicomedyThis dramatic genre contains both tragic and comedic elements. It blends both elements to lighten the overall mood of the play. Often, tragicomedy is a serious play that ends happily.Comedy Examples from Literature Example #1: A Midsummer Night's Dream (By William Shakespeare)William Shakespeare's play, A Midsummer Night's Dream, is a good example of a romantic comedy, presenting young lovers falling comically in and out of love for a brief period. Their real world problems get resolved magically, enemies reconcile, and true lovers unite in the end.Example #2: Every Man in His Humor (By Ben Johnson)In his play Every Man in His Humor, Ben Johnson brings a comedy of humors. An overpowering suspicion of, and obsession with, his wife - that she might be unfaithful to him - controls Kitely. Then a country gull determines every decision of George Downright in order to understand the manners of the city gallant. Kno'well worried for moral development of his son, tries to spy on him.Example #3: The Conscious Lovers (By Sir Richard Steele)Sir Richard Steele's play, The Conscious Lovers, is a best-known and popular sentimental comedy, which is like a melodrama. It characterizes extreme exaggeration, dealing with trials of its penniless leading role Indiana. The play ends happily with the discovery of Indiana as heiress.Example #4: All's Well that Ends Well (By William Shakespeare)Shakespeare's play, All's Well that Ends Well, perfectly sums up tragic and comic elements. This tragicomedy play shows antics of low-born but devoted Helena, who attempts to win the love of her lover, Bertram. She finally succeeds in marrying him, though she decides not to accept him until she wears the family ring of her husband and bears him a child. She employs a great deal of trickery by disguising herself as Bertram's other, and fakes her death. Bertram discovers her treachery at the end but realizes Helena did all that for him and expresses his love for her.Function of ComedyComedy tends to bring humor and induce laughter in plays, films, and theaters. The primary function of comedy is to amuse and entertain the audience, while it also portrays social institutions and persons as corrupt, and ridicules them through satirizing, parodying, and poking fun at their vices. By doing this, authors expose foibles and follies of individuals and society by using comic elements.

External Conflict

External conflict is a struggle that takes place between the main character and some outside force. Therefore, it is outside the body of the protagonist. Usually, it occurs when the protagonist struggles against the antagonist, a character that opposes the protagonist in the main body of the story. Other types of external conflict could also arise due to some other factors such as the forces of nature, and society in which the protagonist lives. Types of External ConflictThere are different types of external conflict found in stories. The most common are:Character vs. CharacterThis type of conflict occurs when a character struggles against other characters in the story, for instance in the Harry Potter series. Harry engages in a battle against Lord Voldemort.Character vs. SocietyThis external conflict occurs when the main character stands up to support his beliefs and struggles against the social forces, for instance Sophocles' "Antigone."Character vs. Nature In this type of external conflict, the protagonist struggles against the forces of nature, or an external environment. For instance, in the short story To Build a Fire, Jack London tells a story of an anonymous narrator and his dog, traveling through the wilderness of Yukon Trail.Examples of External Conflict in Literature Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)One classic example of character vs. society external conflict occurs in Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet. The two major characters fall in love, despite their belonging to the feuding families, which do not want them to be together. They constantly struggle and strive to get together throughout the play, as they are under the pressure of society, which wants them to hate each other. Thus, it is a struggle between individuals and society that eventually causes their tragic deaths.Example #2: The Old Man and The Sea (by Earnest Hemingway)A major external conflict is between the old man, Santiago, and the fish, a marlin. There is fighting back and forth, and a tug of war between them, that lasts for several days, with neither giving up. Santiago's struggle is also against nature - to catch a giant fish, and the sharks - which attack his precious marlin.The old man tries to catch the marlin, though it fights back pretty hard. The old man struggles against the views of his villagers too, as they think he has run out of his luck and wasted eighty four days without catching a fish. Nevertheless, he is still determined to not give up. We can clearly see his dilemma of catching the marlin, and his conflict with the fish, when he says, "Fish, I love you and respect you very much. But I will kill you dead before this day ends."Example #3: Heart of Darkness (by Joseph Conrad)Marlowe takes an adventure to the Congo Bay in Africa, and feels surrounded by imperialistic forces there. Conflicts of both character vs. nature, and character vs. society, exist here. In fact, Marlowe comes to a place where people are mentally crazy, and kill each other just to follow their nonsense rituals. In this place, even average people become savages.Marlowe also sees a civilized man, Kurtz, who due to his prolonged stay over there, starts behaving like the local savages. Though Marlowe could not stand a lie, and does not forgive others for this fault when he meets Kurtz's fiancée, he tells her a lie about her fiancé's last words. Being a protagonist, Marlowe faces numerous external conflicts.Example #4: Macbeth (by William Shakespeare)Macbeth faces character vs. society conflict. Initially, he struggles with his internal conflict, which allows his ambition to turn him into a violent person, pushing him to kill the king to dethrone him. However, during all these circumstances, he encounters several external conflicts. Following the murder of the king, the people stand up against him, and he has to engage himself in fight with them. These external conflicts occur between Macbeth and other characters.Function of External ConflictStories told in novels, plays, short stories, and other similar formats, revolve around the conflict. External conflict gives a sense of excitement and immediacy to the story, making it worth reading. It defines uniqueness of a character and reveals his intentions, giving the audience an understanding of his motivation behind the dialogue and action. In addition, it tells the reason of a character's motivation in life that otherwise may appear foolish on the surface. It also makes possible for the readers to build up sympathy and profound connection with the character to eventually learn something and transform their lives through this learning.

Verisimilitude

In a literary work, verisimilitude is likeness to the truth, such as the resemblance of a fictitious work to a real event, even if it is a far-fetched one. Verisimilitude ensures that even a fantasy must be rooted in reality, which means that events should be plausible to the extent that readers consider them credible enough to be able to relate them somehow to their experiences of real life. Origin of VerisimilitudeThe theory of verisimilitude comes from a Platonic and Aristotelian dramatic theory called "mimesis." According to this theory, a work of art should convince the audience by imitating and representing nature, and having a basis in reality. The playwright, conforming to the above-mentioned theory, had to draw themes from sources well-known to the common people of his time, and maintain the unities of action, place, and time. Besides, he had to bring a realistic union between the style and the subject.Suspension of Disbelief The theory of verisimilitude leads to the idea of "suspension of disbelief," or "willing suspension of disbelief," a term coined in 1817 by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. He was of the opinion that, if a writer was able to fill his work with a "human interest and a semblance of truth," the readers would willingly suspend or delay their judgment in relation to the doubtfulness of a narrative. In his Biographia Literaria, Coleridge says:"... It was agreed, that my endeavours should be directed to persons and characters supernatural, or at least romantic, yet so as to transfer from our inward nature a human interest and a semblance of truth sufficient to procure for these shadows of imagination that willing suspension of disbelief for the moment, which constitutes poetic faith. Mr. Wordsworth on the other hand was to propose to himself as his object, to give the charm of novelty to things of every day, and to excite a feeling analogous to the supernatural, by awakening the mind's attention from the lethargy of custom, and directing it to the loveliness and the wonders of the world before us ..."Examples of Verisimilitude in LiteratureExample #1: Gulliver Travels (By Jonathan Swift)Jonathan Swift's Gulliver Travels is a brilliant work of fantasy that may be considered as one of the best examples of Verisimilitude. It achieves verisimilitude due to the fact that it is one of the finest examples of political satire in English Literature. Readers find in it a resemblance to a reality, as they are aware of the fact that Swift satirizes contemporary politics, religion, and English culture. For instance, criticizing party politics in England, Swift writes:"... that for above seventy Moons past there have been two struggling Parties in this Empire, under the Names of Tramecksan and Slamecksan from the high and low Heels on their shoes, by which they distinguish themselves."Two rival political parties, the Whigs and the Tories, dominated England's political scene during Swift's time. In his novel, the fictitious kingdom of Lilliput is dominated by two parties distinguished by the size of the heels of their boots. By relating the trivial disputes between the two Lilliputian parties, Swift relentlessly satirizes the insignificant disputes of the two English parties of his period. He achieves verisimilitude through this.Example #2: Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (By Mark Twain)Mark Twain in his popular Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Twain used Black American vernacular to show realistically how the "negroes" [Black Americans] talked in real life:"I didn't want to go back no more. I had stopped cussing, because the widow didn't like it; but now I took to it again because pap hadn't no objections ... But by-and-by pap got too handy with his hick'ry, and I could't stand it. I was all over with welts. He got to going away so much, too, and locking me in. Once he locked me in and was gone three days. It was dreadful lonesome."Twain successfully achieves verisimilitude - or a resemblance to reality - by introducing colloquialism in his narrative. The use of double negatives is quite evident in the above passage.Example #3: Night Clouds (By Amy Lowell) Drawing analogies from real life gives a semblance of truth to even fantastic ideas. For instance:"The white mares of the moon rush along the skyBeating their golden hoofs upon the glass Heavens."In the above excerpt, the poet constructs an analogy between clouds and mares. She compares the movement of the white clouds in the sky at night with the movement of white mares on the ground. Such comparisons give her far-fetched ideas an air of reality.Function of VerisimilitudeA literary work throws a lasting impression on its readers if it presents the theme in such a way that readers can relate it to real life. Conformity to the theory of verisimilitude ensures the existence of reality in a literary work. Political satires are abundant with verisimilitude examples.

Snark

Snark is a combination of two words, "snide" and "remark," which means a sarcastic comment. It is a literary device that is meant to be sarcastic speech. Depending on the subject, the audience, and the speaker, snark can be taken as sophisticated, witty, or asinine. Snark is defined as making sharp and critical comments, and a wonderfully witty blending of cynicism and sarcasm. There are many examples of snark from Shakespeare's works such as, "Thrift, thrift, Horatio! The funeral bak'd meats did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables..." (Hamlet). The major character, Hamlet, makes sarcastic remarks on the affair of his mother and uncle, and regarding their marriage ceremony.Characteristics of SnarkSnark is a witty and sarcastic comment used in writing or speech. Hate speeches pointed towards large groups of people cannot be considered as snark examples. It is a rug-pulling and teasing type of insult that is used to steal somebody's charm, and annihilate his effectiveness. Snark can appeal to the shrewd audience at large who can understand the derision of the snarker and his references.Examples of Snark in Literature Example #1: Mending Walls (By Robert Frost)"Good fences make good neighbors.Spring is the mischief in me, and I wonderIf I could put a notion in his head."Frost makes snarky remarks by pointing out that, although two neighbors have made a wall between their countries, every winter the wall falls apart, and the neighbors meet to mend the wall. Therefore, they spend a lot of time together while mending the wall.Example #2: Road Not Taken (By Robert Frost)"I shall be telling this with a sighSomewhere ages and ages hence:Two roads diverged in a wood, and I,I took the one less traveled by, and that has made all the difference."The poet talks about two roads, one of which most people choose, while the other is less traveled. The poet has chosen the less traveled one. Since he feels regret for his choice of path, he makes a snarky and sarcastic comment that it made a difference.Example #3: Canterbury Tales (By Geoffrey Chaucer) "A FRERE ther was, a wantown and a merye,A limitour, a ful solempne man,So muche of daliaunce and fair langage.He hadde maad ful many a mariageOf yonge wommen, at his owne cost.Ful wel biloved and famulier was heWith frankeleyns over-al in his contree,He wiste that a man was repentaunt.For many a man so hard is of his herte."Chaucer depicts the character Friar in a bitter speech, because the said character is a priest who accepts bribes from rich people. He does not take interest in his duties, and he spends money from confessions of sinners on women and merry-making.Example #4: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)"O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art thou, Romeo?Deny thy father and refuse thy name.Or, if thou wilt not, be but sworn my love,And I'll no longer be a Capulet..."Here, Juliet makes a sarcastic comment, and asks Romeo his name, asking why his name is Romeo. It is because their families are enemies, and they could never be united. She tells him to change his name or she will change hers.Example #5: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare)"Friends, countrymen, lend me your ears.I come to bury Caesar, not to praise himHere, under leave of Brutus and the rest—For Brutus is an honorable man.So are they all, all honorable men."Here, Mark Antony recurrently uses a specific phrase, "an honorable man." He calls Brutus an honorable man who has killed Caesar. His persistent use of this phrase reverses the real meaning, hence it is a sarcastic use of this phrase.Function of SnarkSnark can be used for different purposes. However, mostly it is utilized as a mask. Others might use it as a defensive device. When bitterness is not easy to express in an agreeable way, snark is used without hurting anyone directly.The major purpose of snark in literary works is to create a special flavor, just to make the piece of work real. However, the essence of snark in literary works is to hurt someone through bitter words.

Sound Devices

Sound devices are literary elements used in prose and poetry to stress certain sounds and create musical effects. The writers make their texts vibrant, emotive and pleasing with the use of these devices. Also, they create pointed and special effects in their writings that help the readers in understanding the literary piece at a deeper level. However, the writers intentionally stress some syllables to emphasize sound that appeals to the readers in a certain way. Types of Sound DevicesThere are many types of sound devices. For example,Assonance: Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in the same line.Consonance: Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds in the same line.Alliteration: Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds in the same line.Meter: It is a unit of rhythm in poetry, the pattern of the beats.Onomatopoeia: It refers to the word which imitates the natural sounds of the things.Examples of Sound Devices from Literature Example #1I heard a Fly Buzz - When I died by Emily DickinsonI heard a Fly buzz - when I died -The Stillness in the RoomWas like the Stillness in the Air -Between the Heaves of Storm -The Eyes around - had wrung them dry -And Breaths were gathering firmFor that last Onset - when the KingBe witnessed - in the Room -I willed my Keepsakes - Signed awayWhat portion of me beAssignable - and then it wasThere interposed a Fly -'I Heard a Fly Buzz When I died' is a simple and lucid poem, reflects the morbidity of death. The dead speaker is transcribing the events that led to her death. Also, she explains what she felt while dying. She says that she heard a fly buzz when taking her last breath, then details the moments that led up to this event. Emily has used sound devices to make it a pleasant literary piece. There is an assonance in the first line where /i/ sound is repeated in the same line. For example, "I heard a Fly buzz - when I died." Consonance is used in the sixth line where /r/ sound is repeated to create a special effect such as, "The Eyes around - had wrung them dry." Emily has also used Onomatopoeia "buzz" which is repeated in the first and last stanza of the poemExample #2A Visit from St. Nicholas by Clement Clarke Moore'Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the houseNot a creature was stirring, not even a mouse;The stockings were hung by the chimney with care,In hopes that St. Nicholas soon would be there;The children were nestled all snug in their beds;While visions of sugar-plums danced in their heads;And mamma in her 'kerchief, and I in my cap,Had just settled our brains for a long winter's nap,When out on the lawn there arose such a clatter,I sprang from my bed to see what the matter was.Away to the window I flew like a flash,Tore open the shutters and threw up the sash.The moon on the breast of the new-fallen snow,Gave a lustre of midday to objects below,When what to my wondering eyes did appear,But a miniature sleigh and eight tiny rein-deer,With a little old driver so lively and quick,I knew in a moment he must be St. Nick.The poem talks about a very well-known tradition of Christmas and illustrates the merriment and excitement of a family at the arrival of St. Nicholas. He comes every year with a lot of gifts and sweets. Clement has made this poem unique with appropriate use of sound devices. He has used onomatopoeias like "prancing", "clatter" and "pawing" to create sound in the poem. Similarly, alliteration is used in the opening lines. For example, "When what to my wondering eyes did appear," the poet has repeated the consonants /w/ to create a pointed effect in the poem.Example #3 Little Bo-Peep by Mother GooseLittle Bo-Peep has lost her sheep,And can't tell where to find them;Leave them alone, and they'll come home,Bringing their tails behind them.Little Bo-Peep fell fast asleep,And dreamt she heard them bleating;But when she awoke, she found it a joke,For they were still all fleeting.The poem presents the agony and loss of a young girl who loses her flock of sheep and never unites with it again. She tries to look for them. Instead, she finds their tails. This gruesome incident makes her heart bleed. The poet has used sound devices such as alliteration, consonance, onomatopoeia and assonance with a perfect blend of visual images to make it a superb literary piece. 'Bleep' is used as an Onomatopoeia in the sixth line and alliteration is used in the first line of the 2nd stanza and 3rd line of the last stanza. For example, /f/ sound in "Little Bo-Peep fell fast asleep" and /sh/ sound in "And tried what she could, as a shepherdess should."Sound Devices Meaning and FunctionSound devices are resources the poets use in their texts with a unique blend of sounds, rhythm, and imagery. Their skillful use pertains to the senses and allows the readers to feel the effects of the text. They are used in a variety of ways to enhance the meanings of the text. As music and musical notes comprise low and high-pitched tunes and meters, poets use sound devices to create musical effects through these literary and poetic pieces.

Riddle

A riddle is a question, a puzzle, a phrase, or a statement devised to get unexpected or clever answers. It is a folklore genre as well as rhetorical device, often having veiled or double meanings. When someone uses it as a puzzle or a question, it could be a thought-provoking challenge for the audience to figure it out themselves, or it could be a funny comment intended to make the audience laugh. Some riddles show the wit of protagonists in a narrative, allowing them to escape a terrible situation by using their wit rather than their strength. Often times, puzzling riddles tell us that we cannot answer some questions, leading to hours of perturbed head scratching. However, they open our minds to a number of possibilities.Common and Popular Examples of RiddleIt is so fragile that if you say its name you break it, what is it?Answer: It is silence.I have a head, I have a tail, but I do not have a body. I am neither a lizard nor a snake. Then, guess what am I?Answer: I am a coin.It can run and does not walk, has a mouth and does not talk, has a head and does not weep, has a bed and does not sleep?Answer: It is a river.Something that falls and never breaks, and something breaks but never falls?Answer: Day breaks and night falls.My father is white but I am black, I am a bird without wings, flying to the clouds. I cause tears of mourning in those who encounter me, but there is no reason for mourning because, once I am born, I am dissolved into air. Can you guess who am I?Answer: I am smoke.Types of Riddle There are two main types of riddle:Enigma - Enigmas are problems expressed in an allegorical or metaphorical language, requiring careful thinking and ingenuity to solve them.Conundrum - Conundrums are questions that rely on punning for creating effects in a question.Examples of Riddle in LiteratureExample #1: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles)One of the most popular riddles in literature is the riddle of Sphinx, who asks questions of Oedipus.Riddle: "What goes on four legs in the morning, on two legs at noon, and on three legs in the evening?"Answer: Oedipus solves this riddle, giving right answer: it is man, who can crawl on his four legs as an infant, and as an adult he walks on two legs, while he walks with a stick when he becomes old.Example #2: The Hobbit (By J. R. R. Tolkien)Bilbo and Gollum play a riddling game, as Bilbo's life would be in danger if he cannot solve the riddle. Luckily, he answers the riddle posed by Gollum, earning an award of safe passage out of the tunnel.Riddle: "This thing all things devours;Birds, beasts, trees, flowers;Gnaws iron, bites steel;Grinds hard stones to meal;Slays king, ruins town,And beats mountain down."Answer: TimeExample #3: The Merchant of Venice (By William Shakespeare) The father of Portia plans a riddle for the men who wish to marry his daughter, and whoever would solve it, would marry her. For doing this, he places three caskets of gold, silver, and lead, and asks would-be suitors to pick the one.Riddle: The golden casket was inscribed: "Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire." The words engraved on the silver casket: "Who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves." The leaden casket: "Who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath."Answer: The golden casket encloses a skull with a warning note that appearances are usually deceiving, human wishes can be dangerous, the silver casket symbolizes chasing intangible goals, and holds a portrait of an idiot. However, the leaden casket symbolizes modesty and inner beauty, and contains a portrait of Portia with a note saying, "You that choose not by the view, chance as fair and choose as true."Example #4: Emma (By Jane Austen)Emma displays her wit while correctly answering Mr. Elton's riddle.Riddle: "My first displays the wealth and pomp of kings,Lords of the earth! their luxury and ease.Another view of man, my second brings,Behold him there, the monarch of the seas!"Answer: CourtshipExample #5: Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (By J. K. Rowling)During his competition in the Tri-Wizard Tournament, Harry had to answer a riddle posed by a Sphinx:Riddle: "First think of the person who lives in disguise,Who deals in secrets and tells naught but lies,Next tell me what's always the last thing to mend,The middle of middle and end of the end?...Which creature would you be unwilling to kiss?"Answer: A spider.Function of RiddleIn written literature, riddles deceive the audience with their meanings. As far as a riddle's purpose is concerned, it explores questions with enough thoroughness to provide readers a clear view of major issues. Riddles can generally be conversation-starters, or brain busters to get readers thinking, while in oral literature, riddles serve as the competition of wits and skills and guessing games.However, if the audience knows the answers they take pleasure in hearing them repeatedly. Gaming riddles reveal the playful side of language in a manageable form. Besides, it is usually possible to draw appropriate metaphors from good riddles.

Round Character

A round character in a novel, play, or story is a complex personality. Like real people, they have depth in feelings and passions. For instance, in the movie "Shrek," the main character says "'Ogres are like onions," which means that, what appears to them is not the only truth. Rather, there is something more inside them. Similarly, a round character has many layers of personality. Writers define a round character fully, both physically and mentally. It is the character with whom the audience can sympathize, associate with, or relate to, as he seems a character they might have seen in their real lives. Characteristics of a Round CharacterRound characters are major characters in a story, who encounter contradictory situations, and undergo transformation during this phase. Therefore, these characters do not remain the same throughout the narrative, making their traits difficult to identify from beginning until the end.These characters are more realistic, their personalities somewhat inconsistent.They are fully developed and show complex traits, like real people.Round characters are also known as "main characters," or "major characters," because they are suitable to surprise the readers in a very convincing manner.Major characters must be round characters to be believable.Examples of Round Characters in Literature Example #1: Winston Smith, 1984 (By George Orwell)George Orwell named his novel's hero Winston Smith, after a great English leader, Winston Churchill. Smith is thirty-nine years old, serves his whole life for the Ministry of Truth, and rewrites history. Then he goes against the rules of the Party and falls in love with Julia, which is a rebellious act written in his diary. There is no past and no future for Smith. He is a round character whose mind is inconstant, while he undergoes his character development during the course of the story.Smith is the main character who knows the danger he will encounter. For instance, he knows from the very beginning that the members of Party will find his diary. They will use the things he has written in it against him. He also knows that the Police will reveal his illegal affair with Julia. Therefore, he does not stay consistent and is a round character.Example #2: Elizabeth Bennet, Pride and Prejudice (by Jane Austen)Elizabeth Bennet is another good example of a round character. She is the main character of Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice, who does not remain the same innocent girl whom readers meet in the first part of the story. Elizabeth develops into a new woman, with different choices and behaviors that have an impact on the people around her. In the beginning, Elizabeth is prejudiced, which is her major flaw, though later she transforms and changes her opinions. In fact, slowly and gradually Elizabeth evolves to understand her true feelings - showing a great example of a round character.Example #3: Hamlet, Hamlet (by William Shakespeare) Yet another great example of a round character is Hamlet. He is a complex, enigmatic, and mysterious character that is knowledgeable, philosophical, intelligent, and thoughtful by nature. Hamlet makes hasty decisions, yet he delays his revenge. His contemplative nature also becomes his tragic flaw, and his lack of timely action becomes the cause of his tragedy. Hamlet's personality is contradictory, while he also encounters many contradictory situations.Example #4: Gatsby, The Great Gatsby (by Scott Fitzgerald)In his novel, The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald has introduced a complex and round character in Gatsby. Gatsby is a tragic hero with a fatal flaw - that of obsession over his beloved Daisy. He is a man of great mystery, because no one knows his whereabouts, or how he becomes rich. Readers learn about his different sides and different traits. He appears to them as scared, mysterious, friendly, angry, happy, disappointed, and frustrated man throughout the novel. Through Nick's narration, readers get an insight into his human mind, and all his emotions and whims.Function of Round CharacterIn play writing and fiction writing, authors develop round characters to make their stories more believable and effective. These characters bring surprise to the readers' expectations by undergoing a significant metamorphosis at the end of a narrative - as compared to what they were in the initial phases. Hence, due to this development, the audience can relate their own lives to this transformed character. By the end, after developing new traits, a round character also demonstrates new facets of human behavior.

Free Verse

Free verse is a literary device that can be defined as poetry that is free from limitations of regular meter or rhythm, and does not rhyme with fixed forms. Such poems are without rhythm and rhyme schemes, do not follow regular rhyme scheme rules, yet still provide artistic expression. In this way, the poet can give his own shape to a poem however he or she desires. However, it still allows poets to use alliteration, rhyme, cadences, and rhythms to get the effects that they consider are suitable for the piece. Features of Free VerseFree verse poems have no regular meter or rhythm.They do not follow a proper rhyme scheme; these poems do not have any set rules.This type of poem is based on normal pauses and natural rhythmical phrases, as compared to the artificial constraints of normal poetry.It is also called vers libre, which is a French word meaning "free verse."Examples of Free Verse in Literature Example #1: A Noiseless Patient Spider (By Walt Whitman)"A noiseless patient spider,I mark'd where on a little promontory it stood isolated,Mark'd how to explore the vacant vast surrounding,It launch'd forth filament, filament, filament, out of itself,Ever unreeling them, ever tirelessly speeding them.And you O my soul where you stand,Surrounded, detached, in measureless oceans of space...Till the bridge you will need be form'd, till the ductile anchor hold,Till the gossamer thread you fling catch somewhere, O my soul."If you are looking for free verse examples, then Walt Whitman is your guy. He is known as the father of free verse English poetry. In this poem, only a simple metaphor is used to mesmerize readers without employing regular rhyme scheme or rhythm. We can see normal pauses in the poem unlike the typical limitations of metrical feet.Example #2: Soonest Mended (By John Ashbury)"Barely tolerated, living on the marginIn our technological society, we were always having to be rescuedOn the brink of destruction, like heroines in Orlando FuriosoBefore it was time to start all over again.There would be thunder in the bushes, a rustling of coils...The whole thing might not, in the end, be the only solution...Came plowing down the course, just to make sure everything was O.K. ...About how to receive this latest piece of information."This is one of the best examples of free verse poetry. In this poem, there is no regular rhyme scheme or rhythm. It is without poetic constraints, but has a flow that gives it a natural touch.Example #3: Come Slowly, Eden (By Emily Dickinson) "Come slowly, EdenLips unused to thee.Bashful, sip thy jasmines,As the fainting bee,Reaching late his flower,Round her chamber hums,Counts his nectars—alights,And is lost in balms!"Emily Dickinson is famous as the mother of American English free verse. This poem does not have consistent metrical patterns, musical patterns, or rhyme. Rather, following the rhythm of natural speech, it gives an artistic expression to the ideas it contains.Example #4: The Garden (By Ezra Pound)"Like a skein of loose silk blown against a wallShe walks by the railing of a path in Kensington Gardens,And she is dying piece-mealof a sort of emotional anemia.And round about there is a rabbleOf the filthy, sturdy, unkillable infants of the very poor.They shall inherit the earth.In her is the end of breeding.Her boredom is exquisite and excessive...will commit that indiscretion."Ezra Pound is also renowned for writing free verse poetry. He has created this modern free verse poem with musical quality. There are stressed and unstressed patterns, but they are created in a very clever way. It is not following a regular rhyme scheme, but we can see alliteration in words such as "like," "loose," "round rabble," "exquisite," and "excessive."Function of Free VerseFree verse is commonly used in contemporary poetry. Some poets have taken this technique as a freedom from rhythm and rhyme, because it changes people's minds whimsically. Therefore, free verse is also called vers libre.The best thing about free verse is that poets can imagine the forms of any sound through intonations instead of meters. Free verse gives a greater freedom for choosing words, and conveying their meanings to the audience. Since it depends upon patterned elements like sounds, phrases, sentences, and words, it is free of artificiality of a typical poetic expression.

Genre

Genre means a type of art, literature, or music characterized by a specific form, content, and style. For example, literature has four main genres: poetry, drama, fiction, and non-fiction. All of these genres have particular features and functions that distinguish them from one another. Hence, it is necessary on the part of readers to know which category of genre they are reading in order to understand the message it conveys, as they may have certain expectations prior to the reading concerned. Types of GenreThere are five types of genres in literature, which include:PoetryPoetry is the first major literary genre. All types of poetry share specific characteristics. In fact, poetry is a form of text that follows a meter and rhythm, with each line and syllable. It is further subdivided into different genres, such an epic poem, narrative, romantic, dramatic, and lyric. Dramatic poetry includes melodrama, tragedy, and comedy, while other poems includes ode, sonnet, elegy, ballad, song, and epic.Popular examples of epic poems include Paradise Lost, by John Milton, The Iliad and The Odyssey, by Homer. Examples of romantic poems include Red Red Rose, by Robert Burns. All these poetic forms share specific features, such as they do not follow paragraphs or sentences; they use stanzas and lines instead. Some forms follow very strict rules of length, and number of stanzas and lines, such as villanelle, sonnet, and haiku. Others may be free-form, like Feelings, Now, by Katherine Foreman, which is devoid of any regular meter and rhyme scheme. Besides that, often poetry uses figurative language, such as metaphor, simile, onomatopoeia, hyperbole, and alliteration to create heightened effect.DramaDrama is a form of text that is performed in front of an audience. It is also called a play. Its written text contains dialogues, and stage directions. This genre has further categories such as comedy, tragedy, and tragicomedy. William Shakespeare is known as the father of English drama. His well-known plays include Taming of the Shrew, Romeo & Juliet, and Hamlet. Greek playwrights were the pioneers in this field, such as Sophocles' masterpiece Oedipus Rex, and Antigone, while modern dramas include Death of a Salesman, by Arthur Miller.Prose This type of written text is different from poetry in that it has complete sentences organized into paragraphs. Unlike poetry, prose focuses on characters and plot, rather than focusing on sounds. It includes short stories and novels, while fiction and non-fiction are its sub genres. Prose is further categorized into essays, speeches, sermons, and interpretations.FictionFiction has three categories that are, realistic, non-realistic, and semi-fiction. Usually, fiction work is not real and therefore, authors can use complex figurative language to touch readers' imaginations. Unlike poetry, it is more structured, follows proper grammatical pattern, and correct mechanics. A fictional work may incorporate fantastical and imaginary ideas from everyday life. It comprises some important elements such as plot, exposition, foreshadowing, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. Popular examples of literary fiction include, James Joyce's novel A Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man, Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities, Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice, and Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird.Non-FictionNon-fiction is a vast category that also has sub-genres; it could be creative like a personal essay, or factual, like a scientific paper. It may also use figurative language, however, not unlike poetry, or fiction has. Sometimes, non-fiction may tell a story, like an autobiography, or sometimes it may convey information to readers.Other examples of non-fiction include biographies, diaries, memoirs, journals, fantasies, mysteries, and romances. A popular example of non-fiction genre is Michael Pollan's highly celebrated book, The Omnivore's Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals, which is an account of the eating habits of Americans.Function of Genre Different genres have different roles. For example, fiction and dramatic genres help students and writers learn and improve their communication skills. A poetic genre, on the other hand, enhances imaginative and emotional power of the readers. Non-fictional texts and essays help readers develop analytical and persuasive capabilities. However, the major function of genre is to establish a code of behavior between the writers and audience, and keep the readers informed about the topics discussed or the themes presented.

Half Rhyme

Half rhyme is one of the major poetic devices. It is also called an "imperfect rhyme," "slant rhyme," "near rhyme," or "oblique rhyme." It can be defined as a rhyme in which the stressed syllables of ending consonants match, however the preceding vowel sounds do not match. For instance, in words such as "shape" and "keep" the consonance is very strong. The final consonant sounds remain similar, but the ending vowel sounds are different in half rhyme. Similar to these two words "moon" and "run," and in the words "hold" and "bald," the ending consonant sounds are similar, whereas vowel sounds are different.It is generally used to give an inharmonious feeling in a rhyme scheme. Poets can bring variations in their choice of words by using half rhymes. It is also known as an imperfect, near, off, or sprung rhyme. Half rhyme is exclusively used as a poetic device.Difference with Para Rhyme and AssonanceHalf rhyme is not a perfect rhyme. And it must not be confused with para-rhyme or assonance. Although these two literary devices are, to some extent, similar to half rhyme, there is a slight difference between them. In para-rhyme, the ending and beginning consonant sounds are similar, such as in the words "rod" and "red." In assonance, the vowel sounds are similar also, such as in "shot" and "lot."Examples of Half Rhyme in Literature Henry Vaughan was the first English poet who used half rhyme in his poetry. However, half rhyme was not commonly used in literary works before Gerard Manley Hopkins and W. B. Yeats, who introduced this device in their works. Slant/half rhyme became very popular among the literary writers and English poets since then. They started using this poetic device extensively in their works specifically in the 20th century.Let us have a look at some examples of half rhyme:Example #1: To My Wife (By George Wolff)"If love is like a bridgeor maybe like a grudge,and time is like a riverthat kills us with a shiver,then what have all these mornings meantbut aging into love?What now is straight must have been bent;what now is whole must have been rent.My hand is now your glove."The poet here throws a subtle curve ball in the first two lines of this stanza, in which the closing consonant sounds of "bridge" and "grudge" are similar. These two do not rhyme completely, however, making them perfect examples of half rhyme.Example #2: Lines written in Dejection (By W. B. Yeats)"When have I last looked onThe round green eyes and the long wavering bodiesOf the dark leopards of the moon?All the wild witches, those most noble ladies..."Here, in the first and third lines, the half rhyme is used in words on and moon.Example #3: Sailing to Byzantium (By W. B. Yeats) "That is no country for old men. The youngIn one another's arms, birds in the trees- Those dying generations - at their song,The salmon-falls, the mackerel-crowded seas,Fish, flesh, or fowl, commend all summer longWhatever is begotten, born, and dies.Caught in that sensual music all neglectMonuments of unageing intellect."The rhyme scheme of this poem is ABABABCC, there is an altered irregular rhyme following a couplet. If Yeats had not used the altered half rhyme style in this poem, it would have become the Italian form, which is used specifically for heroic epics.Example #4: Emily Dickinson (By Not any Higher Stands the Grave)"Not any higher stands the GraveFor Heroes than for men—Not any nearer for the ChildThan numb Three Score and Ten—"The words "men" and "ten" rhyme and show us an example of a perfect rhyme in this first stanza. But, we can compare this stanza to the next, in order to understand imperfect or half rhyme then, as the poet goes on:"This latest leisure equal lullsThe beggar and his queen;Propitiate this democratBy summer's gracious mien."Function of Half RhymeHalf rhymes help a poet create an unusual range of words to give a variety of rhyming effects, particularly when they are used with other poetic devices and rhyming schemes. They help poets avoid using the typical sing-song chiming effects of full rhymes, and give them creative freedom. Furthermore, half rhymes have provided a subtle discordant note, which does not give absolute harmony, but which offers variation in tone, and creates a good impact on the readers. When half rhymes are used with other poetic devices, they give shocking effects to the reader about the actual rhyme scheme.

Hamartia

Hamartia is a personal error in a protagonist's personality, which brings about his tragic downfall in a tragedy. This defect in a hero's personality is also known as a "tragic flaw." Aristotle used the word in his Poetics, where it is taken as a mistake or error in judgment. The term envelops wrongdoings, which may be accidental or deliberate. One of the classic hamartia examples is where a hero wants to achieve something but, while doing so, he commits an intentional or accidental error, and he ends up achieving exactly the opposite with disastrous results. Such a downfall is often marked by a reversal of fortune.Hamartia and HubrisA typical example of hamartia in tragedies is hubris, which is excessive pride and ego in a hero's character. This often ultimately brings about his tragic downfall. In Greek tragedies, the hubristic actions of a hero in a powerful position causes his shame and humiliation.Examples of Hamartia in Literature Example #1: Oedipus (By Sophocles)Oedipus, a famous Greek tragedy, is a perfect example of hamartia, in which the primary character's downfall is caused by unintentional wrongdoings. His hubris leads him to defy the prophecy of gods, but he ends up doing what he feared the most.In the story, the Oracle of Delphi told Oedipus that he would kill his father and marry his mother. To avoid this, he leaves the city of Corinth, and heads towards Thebes. On his way, he killed an old man in a feud. Later, he married the queen of Thebes when he was made king of the city, after he saved the city from a deadly Sphinx. He committed all these sins in complete ignorance, but he deserved punishment because of his attempting to rebel against his fate. His reversal of fortune is caused by his actions, which are in a sense blasphemous.Example #2: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)Prince Hamlet's tragic flaw, in Shakespeare's play Hamlet, determines his tragic downfall. Hamlet's hamartia is his indecisiveness. He cannot make up his mind about the dilemmas he confronts. He reveals his state of mind in the following lines from Act 3, Scene 1 of the play:"To be, or not to be — that is the question:Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to sufferThe slings and arrows of outrageous fortuneOr to take arms against a sea of troublesAnd by opposing end them. To die, to sleep..."Hamlet wants to kill his father's murderer, Claudius, but instead ruins his life by delaying action, as he looks for proof to justify the act. In the process, he spoils his relationship with his mother, and sends Ophelia into such a state of depression that she commits suicide. This indecision got almost everyone killed at the end of the play. He killed Claudius by assuming fake madness because of his indecisiveness in action so that he will not be asked for any justification.Example #3: Doctor Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe) Among the hamartia examples in literature, one of the best can be found in Christopher Marlowe's Doctor Faustus. The tragic flaw of Faustus was his ambitious nature. Despite being a respected scholar, he sold his soul to Lucifer by signing a contract, with his blood, for achieving ultimate power and limitless pleasure in this world.He learns the art of black magic and defies Christianity. We see a tragic conflict where Faustus thinks about repenting, but it is all too late. Finally, the devils takes his soul away to Hell and he suffers eternal damnation because of his over-ambition.Example #4: Frankenstein (By Mary Shelley)Victor, in Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein, is another character whose downfall is caused by a tragic error. His hubris, or extreme pride and arrogance, decides his fate in the narrative. He strives to become an unparalleled scientist, and creates a monster that ultimately becomes the cause of his disaster.Function of HamartiaHamartia imparts a sense of pity and fear in the audience, or the readers. The audience identifies with the tragic hero as, like them, his character is a mixture of good and bad qualities. They feel pity for the reversal of fortune that he undergoes. Similarly, by witnessing a tragic hero suffer due to his own flaw, the audience or the readers may fear the same fate could befall them if they indulge in similar kinds of action.Therefore, hamartia may be employed for a moral purpose, to encourage people to improve their characters by removing the flaws that can cause a tragedy in their lives.

Hook

Have you ever read a book that could not grab your attention after reading a couple of sentences? On the contrary, you would have definitely read a book that has immediately captured your attention, after which you were unable to put it down. Some books are magnetic, while others are really boring. One of the reasons could be the narrative hook. Knowing this, authors share an important literary technique to keep their readers engaged in their stories, which is hook, or narrative hook, which keep readers' interest alive in the book. It appears at the beginning of the story, and may contain several pages of a novel, several paragraphs of a short story, or it might be only an opening sentence, or a single line.Types of HookThere are several types of hook:dramatic action,mysterious setting,engaging characters; andthematic statements.Examples of Hook in Literature Example #1: Ragweed (By Avi)We come to know, from the very first line of Avi's novel Ragweed, that this story will be a comical reading experience, as it reads:"Ma, a mouse has to do what a mouse has to do."A young countryside mouse named Ragweed leaves his big family behind and sets out to live an adventurous life in the big city. There he encounters some cool dudes and dudettes from the mouse family. Ragweed also faces extreme danger from cats, especially the founding member of F.E.A.R., Willy Silversides.Willy, along with the vice president, decides to go to any length in order to defeat their arch-nemeses to the point of devastating the Cheese Squeeze Club. Now it is the time for Ragweed to come up with a cunning strategy and muster the courage to defeat the Felines First Brigade. However, this hook has played an important role in making the story attractive.Example #2: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen)The first sentence of Jane Austen's novel Pride and Prejudice, is one of the most famous first lines in literature, saying:"It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife."This line sets the plot's mood, and captures the attention of readers due to its contrariness and notoriety. It also tells about the marriage theme of this novel, and introduces ironic tone, which Austen uses structurally and verbally throughout the novel. The Author presents a thematic statement about the value of love and marriage in a society where women have difficulty finding husbands amid class prejudice and financial snobbery.Example #3: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens) One of the most famous and brilliant opening lines in all of literature occurs in Charles Dickens' novel, A Tale of Two Cities:"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness ..."This line hints at the central tension that occurs between family and love, and between oppression and hatred. These opposing ideals show prominent structural figures, like Paris and London, Charles Darnay and Sydney Carton, and Madame Defarge and Miss Pross. The tone of the entire novel is set by this famous sentence.Example #4: Feed (By M. T. Anderson)Readers cannot resist an alarmingly satirical line of M. T. Anderson's novel Feed, which reads:"We went to the moon to have fun, but the moon turned out to completely suck."This line helps to set the stage for the novel's plot about a futuristic world, which is overrun by uncontrolled consumerism, and where humans implant computer chips in most of the infants at birth. Children do not need to go to schools, since they can Google to get information that they might need, and people need not converse with anyone, as they can IM instantly. Hence, the first catchy line gives an indication about the theme of this narrative, and hooks the readers' attention.Function of HookAuthors use hook as a critical component of their writing, as it allows them to demonstrate to readers how their literary works are worth reading within the first minute. This literary technique hooks the attention of readers and appeals to their minds. Readers also get a great sense of entertainment through strong and meaningful opening lines that might stick in their heads forever. We frequently find the use of narrative hook in mystery fiction and suspense thrillers. Besides, authors use it in a number of ways, such as by employing thematic statements and mysterious settings, or using characters.

Homily

Homily is a sermon or speech that a religious person or priest delivers before a group of people to offer them moral correction. The primary purpose of this speech is not doctrinal instruction, but spiritual edification. Simply, homily is a public discourse on a moral or religious subject. Priests read it from the Bible, or other religious text, to give an insight into the exact meanings of the scriptures. Afterward, they relate it to the lives of followers. Examples of Homily in LiteratureExample #1: Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God (By Jonathan Edwards)"He is not only able to cast wicked men into hell, but he can most easily do it. Sometimes an earthly prince meets with a great deal of difficulty to subdue a rebel that has found means to fortify himself ... So 'tis easy for us to cut or singe a slender thread that anything hangs by; thus easy is it for God, when he pleases, to cast his enemies down to hell. What are we, that we should think to stand before him, at whose rebuke the earth trembles, and before whom the rocks are thrown down."This is a popular American sermon in which Edwards has emphasized the idea of a Great Awakening. The underlying idea is that God has given a chance to humanity to rectify their sins, as the will of God has kept them away from the depths of hell.Example #2: Al-Bukhari, Hadith 1623, 1626, 6361 (By Muhammad)"O People, lend me an attentive ear, for I know not whether after this year, I shall ever be amongst you again. Therefore listen to what I am saying to you very carefully and TAKE THESE WORDS TO THOSE WHO COULD NOT BE PRESENT HERE TODAY.Beware of Satan, for the safety of your religion...All mankind is from Adam and Eve, an Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab nor a non-Arab has any superiority over an Arab; also a white has no superiority over black nor a black has any superiority over white except by piety (taqwa) and good action ..."This is the most famous and last sermon or Khutba of the prophet (P.B.U.H), which he delivered on Friday, ninth Dhul Hijjah (12th month of Islamic year), in mount Arafat's Uranah Valley. He directed this message to all of humanity, that they are accountable to God for their deeds.Example #3: Message to California's Proposition 41 in Los Angeles in 1984 (By Father Bill Messenger) "Perhaps many of you grew up during the depression. If so, you know what it means to be poor. I did not grow up during the depression, but I grew up in a poor family. I can remember one Christmas when both of my parents were out of work, and we had no money. Concerned parishioners brought Christmas baskets to our house. It was a humbling and difficult experience for my parents. The year before, my father had helped to distribute baskets to other poor people. Now it was our turn."In this homily, the priest is sharing his personal experience, to allow the readers understand the meanings of his homily and scripture.Example #4: Holy Bible, Matthew 24:42-51 (By Deacon Winton DeRosia)"There is a fable that tells of three apprentice devils who were coming to earth to finish their apprenticeship. They were talking with Satan, the chief of the devils, about their plans to tempt and to ruin humanity. The first said, "I will tell them there is no God." But Satan said, "That will not delude many, for they know there is a God ... The most dangerous of all delusions is that there is plenty of time."Deacon Winton DeRosia delivers this homily on a website "First Sunday in Advent." This sermon is about the temptations of Satan, and how he uses human beings for his purpose.Function of Homily Usually, religious figures deliver homilies in churches, mosques, temples, at mass gatherings, at funerals, and at baptisms and wedding ceremonies. Its main purpose is to convey a moral lesson to the people. Besides teaching moral education, it awakens people's conscience, calls them to repentance, and nourishes their faith. Another purpose is to interpret the lives of the people in such a way that they could reconcile with God Almighty and with one another. Besides this, priests use different persuasive techniques to appeal to the listening congregation.

Hubris

Hubris is extreme pride and arrogance shown by a character, which ultimately brings about his downfall. Hubris is a typical flaw in the personality of a character who enjoys a powerful position; as a result of which, he overestimates his capabilities to such an extent that he loses contact with reality. A character suffering from hubris tries to cross normal human limits, and violates moral codes. Examples of hubris are found in major characters of tragic plays.Definition of Hubris by AristotleAristotle mentions hubris in his book Rhetoric:"Hubris consists in doing and saying things that cause shame to the victim ... simply for the pleasure of it. Retaliation is not hubris, but revenge. ... Young men and the rich are hubristic because they think they are better than other people."Aristotle believed that people indulge in crimes. like sexual misconduct and maltreating others. only to fulfill their basic desire to make themselves feel superior to others.The Concept of Hubris in Greek Mythology Similarly, Greek mythology depicts hubris as a great crime that demands a severe punishment. Generally, the Greek idea of hubris is that a character in an authoritative position becomes so proud of his exceptional qualities that he forms a delusion that he is equal to gods, and eventually he tries to defy the gods and his fate.Examples of Hubris in LiteratureHubris examples are also examples of "hamartia," a tragic flaw in a character that brings about his tragic downfall.Example #1: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles)In the famous Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex, by Sophocles, the character of King Oedipus provides a classic example of a character who suffers from hubris, or excessive pride. Due to his hubris, he attempts to defy prophecies of gods, but ended up doing what he feared the most, and what he was warned against. The Oracle of Delphi told him that he would kill his father and marry his mother.Overcome by hubris, Oedipus tries to avoid this by leaving Corinth, traveling toward Thebes. On his way to the neighboring city, he kills an old man in a feud, and later marries the queen of Thebes, as he was made king of the city after he saved the city from a deadly sphinx. One can say that he commits all these sins in complete ignorance, but nevertheless he deserves punishment because he became so proud that he does not shy from attempting to rebel against his fate. His reversal of fortune is caused by his hubris.Example #2: Paradise Lost (By John Milton)In his famous epic Paradise Lost, John Milton portrays Satan as a character that suffers from hubris. His loses his glorious position through giving in to his excessive pride. It was his hubris that made him try to take control over Heaven. Although he failed miserably, his pride lasts:"Better to reign in Hell, than serve in Heav'n."The reason of his desire to rebel against his creator originates from his reluctance to accept the authority of God and His Son because he believed that angels are "self-begot, self-raised" and hence bringing his downfall in being thrown out of Paradise.Example #3: Doctor Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe) An instance of hubris can be spotted in Marlowe's "Doctor Faustus". Faustus's arrogance and extreme pride in his scholarship and his irresistible desire to become superior to all other men of his age forces him to sell his soul to "Lucifer" by signing a contract with his blood. He learns the art of black magic and defies Christianity. Finally, he has to pay for his arrogance and pride. The devils take away his soul to Hell and he suffers eternal damnation.Example #4: Frankenstein (By Mary Shelley)Likewise, "Victor" the protagonist of Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein" exhibits hubris in his endeavor to become an unmatched scientist. He creates a "monster" named "Frankenstein" which ultimately becomes the cause of his disaster.Function of HubrisIn literature, portrayal of hubristic characters serves to achieve a moralistic end. Such characters are eventually punished thus giving a moral lesson to the audience and the readers so that they are motivated to improve their characters by removing the flaws that can cause a tragedy in their lives. Witnessing a tragic hero suffering due to his hubristic actions, the audience or the readers may fear that the same fate may befall them if they indulge in similar kinds of actions.

Attitude

Generally, attitude is a behavior a person adopts toward other people, things, incidents, or happenings. In literature, the term "attitude" can be referred as perspective or tone of the writer he adopts in a certain work. It is the way a writer develops his characters, describes his stories and designs his narratives. His attitude explains the real nature of the characters and the story. He makes use of an appropriate attitude to provide an in-depth insight into a character's personality. The attitude of a writer can be serious as well as humorous. In certain cases, the attitude can be critical or witty. It is through the attitude readers come to know the feelings of a writer regarding his topic, subject or belief.As written works have a central idea or theme for the audiences, different writers approach themes with different attitudes and tone, which are developed by the choice of words and style. The two examples given below discuss the same subject matter; however, the first demonstrates an informal and casual attitude, while the second example discusses the same theme in a highly formal attitude."I want to ask the authorities what is the big deal? Why do they not control the epidemic? It is eating up lives like a monster.""I want to draw the attention of the concerned authorities toward damage caused by the epidemic. If steps are not taken to curb it, it will further injure our community"Examples of Attitude in LiteratureAttitude plays a significant role in literature, because it bridges the gap between the reader and the writer.Example #1: The Catcher in the Rye (By J. D. Salinger)"All morons hate it when you call them a moron.""If a girl looks swell when she meets you, who gives a damn if she's late? Nobody.""******* money. It always ends up making you blue as hell.""Catholics are always trying to find out if you're Catholic."This is a selection of dialogues from J.D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye, all of which are uttered by Holden Caulfield. It is easy to understand the nature and real personality of the character through these statements. Most of the remarks are quite sarcastic, as Holden talks about real things in criticizing manner. It is not only a way to know the personality of the character, but it opens a window to the writer's viewpoint of real life objects. In fact, the characters are the mouthpieces of the writer's attitude and thinking. That is why this shows the attitude of D. J. Salinger too.Example #2: The School (By Donald Barthelme)"And the trees all died. They were orange trees. I don't know why they died, they just died. Something wrong with the soil possibly or maybe the stuff we got from the nursery wasn't the best. We complained about it. So we've got thirty kids there, each kid had his or her own little tree to plant and we've got these thirty dead trees. All these kids looking at these little brown sticks, it was depressing."A fine example of attitude is presented in this passage. This passage is from Donald Barthelme's short story The School. The author uses certain adjectives like "dead" and "depressing," which develop a gloomy attitude toward the story. Trees symbolize life in these lines, and their death, which has been unexpected, colors the passage with gloomy and negative shades. This is the attitude of the writer as well.Example #3: The Road Not Taken (By Arthur Miller) "I shall be telling this with a sighSomewhere ages and ages hence:Two roads diverged in a wood, and I,I took the one less traveled by,And that has made all the difference."The influence of attitude can easily be perceived in the last stanza of The Road Not Taken, a poem composed by Robert Frost. When the poet, Robert Frost, talks about his past, he mentions it with a "sigh." The use of the sigh draws a picture of nostalgia for the past. The poet's attitude reveals that the speaker was compelled to make a choice that was very difficult for him, but now he is nostalgic about it.Function of Attitude The function of attitude is to give a certain shape and form to a piece of writing. While reading it, the attitude helps the reader to treat it in a specific way. The attitude makes the readers feel in a particular way about the topic the author wants him to feel. It is attitude, which stimulates the feelings of seriousness, comedy or distress while going through a piece of literature. Not only does it give tongue to characters to speak, but also highlights the personality and nature of the characters for readers' full understanding of the given perspective.

Novella

In literature, a novella is a type of prose fiction, which is shorter than full length novels and longer than short stories. It originates from an Italian word "novella", which means "new." It is a well-structured yet short narrative; often satiric or realistic in tone. It usually focuses on one incident, or issue with one or two main characters and takes place at a single location. Difference between Novella and NovelNovellas have less pages and words than that of novels. The more obvious difference is that novellas have fewer subplots and conflicts than full length novels. The main narrative of a novella resembles with a straight line and does not use complicated and indirect plot lines, back stories, and multiple points of views. Unlike novels, novellas usually do not have chapters. It is mostly concerned with emotional and personal development of the character rather than dealing with a larger social sphere and events that usually takes place in one place or location.Examples of Novella in Literature Example # 1Heart of Darkness by Joseph ConradHeart of Darkness is a strictly controlled novella, with a classic status, describing a story of late nineteenth century about imperialistic and colonialist process. This novella focuses on the search of the central character, Kurtz, who goes too far for exploitation of the natives for the sake of an ivory trade. Conrad's readers plunge deeper into the horror of darkness to see what happened after the invasion of the Europeans.Example # 2The Turn of the Screw by Henry JamesThe Turn of the Screw is a good example of a classic novella. It is, in fact, a ghost story that challenges an easy interpretation. The story is about a governess living in a remote house, taking care of two kids, who are horrified by former dead employees. However, no one knows the truth. The story is filled with complexities such as its central issue is the reliability of the narrator, who tells this story. This story can be said a self-conscious and subtle exploration of a traditional horrible domestic theme about Victorian culture, drenched in social and sexual unease.Example # 3 Billy Budd by Herman MelvilleBilly Bud is a novella that tells the story of a tragic incident happens at sea. This is an adaptation from a true occurrence. The story is a parable relating good and evil, nautical recasting of Fall, a reflection on political governance and justice, and finding reality of three persons trapped in a dangerous triangle. Billy is an innocent and handsome, Claggart a cruel tormentor, and third one is Captain Vere, who needs to judge the conflict going on between them. The author has interpreted this narrative in Biblical terms, used Christian allegory, and represented male homosexual desires and what mechanisms are to be chosen to prohibit this desire.Example # 4Death in Venice by Thomas MannDeath in Venice is a wonderful classic novella. It is an amazingly condensed story about the relationship between life and art and life and death. Venice sets background of this story. It is based on a renowned German writer, who is following unusual routines, falling for a young lad, and getting trapped in a slight downward twist of indulgence. The construction of this novella follows the framework of Greek tragedy in which author has used unity of form, motives and themes superbly.Example # 5Seize the Day by Saul BellowThis narrative concentrates on one man, Tommy Wilhelm, and just one day of his life. He is a fading charmer, separated from his family, who starts reckoning and feels scared. Although he is in his forties, he retains boyish impetuousness, which brings him to the brink of havoc. During the course of a climatic day, Tommy reviews all his past mistakes. Some people consider it a short story. However, if looked in depth, it shows a strong sense of unity.Function of NovellaNovellas are the richest and most rewarding forms of literary genres, because this genre allows an extended development of characters and themes than a short story does, without making detailed structural demands of a complete book. Thus, a novella provides a detailed and intense exploration of the topic, providing both the complete focus of a short story and a broad scope of a novel. Since novellas have ideal short length, they are considered a perfect source for silver screen and film adaptations.

Naturalism

Naturalism is a literary genre that started as a movement in late nineteenth century in literature, film, theater, and art. It is a type of extreme realism. This movement suggested the roles of family, social conditions, and environment in shaping human character. Thus, naturalistic writers write stories based on the idea that environment determines and governs human character. We also see use of some of the scientific principles in naturalistic works, and humans struggling for survival in hostile and alien society. In fact, naturalism took its cue from Darwin's theory of evolution, which holds that life is like a struggle and only the fittest survive.Naturalism vs. RealismBoth naturalism and realism are literary genres and interlinked. However, there are some differences between them:Naturalism suggests a philosophical pessimism in which writers use scientific techniques to depict human beings as objective and impartial characters; whereas realism focuses on literary technique.Realism depicts things as they appear, while naturalism portrays a deterministic view of a character's actions and life.Naturalism concludes that natural forces predetermine a character's decisions, making him/her act in a particular way. Realism poses that a decision of a character comes from his response to a certain situation.Examples of Naturalism in Literature Example #1: The Grapes of Wrath (By John Steinbeck)John Steinbeck is one the most popular writers coming from the school of American naturalism. Steinbeck, in his novel The Grapes of Wrath, portrays the Joad family and its changing environment from the naturalistic point of view, during the t Great Depression in the United States. He depicts the Joad family as insignificant, instinct-bound, and small creatures bound to seek a paradise they might never find.Initially, when the Joads leave home, they are very simple and animal-like people, who could barely understand their plight. They face constant opposition from two powerful predators - society and nature. However, as the narrative progresses, they begin to adapt to new circumstances.Example #2: The Open Boat (By Stephen Crane)Stephen Crane, in his short story The Open Boat, portrays men on a boat, representing human endurance against indifferent nature, where they feel themselves helpless. Thus, it contains a theme of naturalism. Whenever a huge wave of water arrives, it shuts everything from the men's view, and they imagine this particular wave would be the final outbreak of the ocean, like in the following lines:"If I am going to be drowned-if I am going to be drowned, why, in the name of the seven gods, who rule the seven seas,?"This lays emphasis on their struggle for survival and lack of choice. Besides, The Open Boat symbolically represents human place in the huge universe where man struggles against nature. Then we see a definite determination, as men cannot play any part in their outcome, which results in unexpected death of Oiler, despite being an expert sailor.Example #3: The Awakening (By Kate Chopin) Kate Chopin's novel, The Awakening, gives an example of a perfect naturalistic novel, as its leading character, Edna Pontellier, lives in a world where no one understands her. Neither does she fit in the Creole society. This often causes misunderstandings in her life, as she can't understand its people:"Edna wondered if they had all gone mad."Then, she realizes that she has chosen the wrong man as her husband:"...taking off her wedding ring, flung it upon the carpet. She stamped her heel upon it, striving to crush it ..."In addition, we see the determination by individual traits and by societal forces inside the family. Consequently, Edna becomes a victim of her sociological pressures.Example #4: To Build A Fire (By Jack London)The theme in Jack London's novel, To Build A Fire, is man versus nature; thus it is another good example of naturalism. Naturalism in this novel shows how human beings need to be careful at every corner, as death could reach them anywhere, waiting for them to commit a mistake and take their lives. We see the story is about a man with his dog trying to survive harsh, cold weather by building a fire. In fact, the author uses the Darwinian Theory of "survival of the fittest" in his work.Function of NaturalismThe impact that naturalism has left on literary writers is colossal, leading to the evolution of the modern movement. Generally, naturalistic works expose dark sides of life such as prejudice, racism, poverty, prostitution, filth, and disease. Since these works are often pessimistic and blunt, they receive heavy criticism. Despite the echoing pessimism in this literary output, naturalists are generally concerned with improving the human condition around the world.

Nemesis

Nemesis is a literary device that refers to a situation of poetic justice, where the good characters are rewarded for their virtues, and the evil characters are punished for their vices. The term nemesis comes from Nemesis - the goddess of revenge in Greek mythology - and divine retribution sought against the people guilty of hubris. In a general sense, nemesis refers to an indomitable rival, or an inescapable situation that causes misery and death. For instance, you may have encountered your nemesis at school - a boy who is no more capable than you are, but who somehow always finishes ahead of you in school examinations, making you feel frustrated.Examples of Nemesis in LiteratureWe find a number of examples of nemesis in both ancient and modern literature. Let us analyze a few:Example #1: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles)In a famous Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex, by Sophocles, the nemesis of King Oedipus is his hubris or excessive pride. He is so proud that he does not even shrink from defying prophecies of the gods. We see that the king ends up doing what he fears and tries to avoid.The Oracle of Delphi tells him that he will kill his father and marry his mother. In his attempt to defy the gods' prophecy, he leaves Corinth, and travels towards Thebes. On his way, he kills an old man in a quarrel. He later marries the queen of Thebes as he ascends the throne, after delivering the city from a deadly sphinx.One can argue that Oedipus commits all of these sins in complete ignorance, yet he deserves retribution because he becomes so swollen with pride that he does not even shy from attempting to revolt against his fate. Thus, his nemesis is his arrogance.Example #2: Doctor Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe)In Christopher Marlowe's Doctor Faustus, Faustus' nemesis was his pride in his scholarship, and his overambitious nature. Overcome by his irresistible desire, he sells his soul to Lucifer, by signing a contract with his blood. He defies Christianity by learning the art of black magic, consequently paying for his arrogance and his pride. As the time mentioned in the contract with the devil exhausts, the devil takes his soul to Hell, where he suffers eternal damnation.Example #3: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) We find two nemesis examples in Shakespeare's Hamlet: Hamlet, and Hamlet's indecisiveness. Hamlet acts as a nemesis for Claudius, who kills Hamlet's father and marries his mother. Claudius' devilishness calls for immediate retribution. The ghost of Hamlet's dead father appears to him, and convinces him to exact revenge. He finds Claudius as the real murderer, and after much indecisive thinking kills him.In the same play, Hamlet's nemesis is his indecisiveness. He is unable to make up his mind about the dilemma he confronts. He discloses his state of mind in the following lines in Act 3, Scene 1 of the play:"To be, or not to be - that is the question:Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to sufferThe slings and arrows of outrageous fortuneOr to take arms against a sea of troublesAnd by opposing end them. To die, to sleep..."He wants to take vengeance on his father's murderer, Claudius. but destroys his own life by postponing the act as he looks for evidence to validate his action. In the process, however, he spoils his relationship with his mother, and sends Ophelia into such a state of depression that she commits suicide.Example #4: Frankenstein (By Mary Shelley)In Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, the protagonist Victor exhibits hubris in his venture to become an unrivaled scientist. After years of experiments, he triumphs in creating a "monster," which he calls "Frankenstein." Ironically, the thing which he considers his supreme invention proves his nemesis. Frankenstein ultimately becomes the source of Victor's disaster, punishing him justly for his over-ambition.Function of Nemesis The main function of nemesis in a literary work is to establish grounds for poetic justice. Nemesis acts as a source of punishment for hubristic and wicked characters on universal moral grounds. Wicked and evil individuals should be penalized for their evilness.Besides, it imparts a moral lesson to the readers to develop and refine the characters, in order to ensure they remove certain flaws which can prove to be their nemesis in time to come.

Paraprosdokian

Paraprosdokian is a derivative of a Greek word that means "beyond expectation." It is a wordplay type of literary device in which the final part of a phrase or sentence is unexpected. Its unexpected or surprised shift in meaning appears at the end of a stanza, series, sentence, or paragraph. Paraprosdokian is a linguistic U-turn that results in humor or surprise. This unexpected ending to a phrase or sentence causes readers to reinterpret the opening phrase or sentence of a text. Often, it is used to create comic effect. Some paraprosdokians change the meaning of an initial phrase, and play on double meanings of the words; hence, it creates syllepsis.Examples of Paraprosdokian from Famous PeopleThere are many one-liner paraprosdokian examples from famous people. Such as:Dorothy Parker: "If all the girls who attended the Yale prom were laid end to end, I wouldn't be a bit surprised."Winston Churchill: "You can always count on the Americans to do the right thing—after they have tried everything else"Albert Einstein: "The difference between stupidity and genius is that genius has its limits.Mario Andretti: "If everything seems under control, you're just not going fast enough."Zsa zsa Gabore: "He taught me housekeeping; when I divorce I keep the house."Examples of Paraprosdokian in Literature Example #1: My Speech to the Graduates (By Woody Allen)"Contemporary man, of course, has no such peace of mind. He finds himself in the midst of a crisis of faith. He is what we fashionably call 'alienated.' He has seen the ravages of war, he has known natural catastrophes, he has been to singles bars."Here, Allen discusses the serious topic of the meaning of human life. The "singles bars" topic is not as significant as the preceding topics, making it an unexpected ending.Example #2: The Restaurant at the End of the Universe (By Douglas Adams)"Trin Tragula - for that was his name - was a dreamer, a thinker, a speculative philosopher or, as his wife would have it, an idiot..."In these lines, the author enumerates the great traits ("a dreamer, a thinker, a speculative philosopher") of a character named Trin Tragula. However, he ends his litany of the character's good traits by mentioning how Trin Tragula's wife perceives him ("as his wife would have it, an idiot"). This ending is a surprise to the readers, and creates comic effect.Example #3: The Cottage Maid (By Patrick Branwell Bronte) "Religion makes beauty enchanting,And even where beauty is wanting,The temper and mind,Religion-refined,Will shine through the veil with sweet lustre..."In this excerpt, the poet is talking about religion throughout the first four lines. However, in the last line there is a sudden shift of sense. "Will shine through the veil with sweet lustre" gives a completely different meaning from the rest of text.Example #4: Shelter (By Charles Stuart Calverley)"By the wide lake's margin I mark'd her lie -The wide, weird lake where the alders sigh -A young fair thing, with a shy, soft eye;And I deem'd that her thoughts had flown ...All motionless, all alone.Then I heard a noise, as of men and boys,And a boisterous troop drew nigh.Whither now will retreat those fairy feet?Where hide till the storm pass by?On the lake where the alders sigh ...For she was a water-rat."Shelter is one of the examples of paraprosdokian in poetry form. In the first two stanzas, readers are led to believe that the subject is a beautiful woman ("A young fair thing, with a shy, soft eye;.../ Whither now will retreat those fairy feet?"). However, with the revelation in the last line - that the subject is a "water-rat" - the poet makes them stop and want to reread the poem.Function of ParaprosdokianThe unexpected ending is used to create humorous and comic effects. It causes the readers to reinterpret or rethink the opening part of a phrase, sentence, stanza, or paragraph. Sometimes it is used to provide dramatic effect, while at other times, it produces an anti-climax, which it is a very popular use among satirists and comedians. Paraprosdokian is employed in poetry, prose, and films, as well as in music.

Parataxis

Parataxis is derived from a Greek word that means "to place side by side." It can be defined as a rhetorical term in which phrases and clauses are placed one after another independently, without coordinating or subordinating them through the use of conjunctions. It is also called "additive style." Parataxis is sometimes used as asyndeton, in which the phrases and clauses are coordinated without conjunctions. The Difference Between Parataxis and HypotaxisHypotaxis is the opposite of parataxis. In hypotaxis, the sentences, clauses, and phrases are subordinated and linked. However, in parataxis the phrases, clauses, and sentences are not subordinated or coordinated.Examples of Parataxis in Literature Example #1: Life of Caesar (By Plutarch)"Veni, vidi, vici" ("I came, I saw, I conquered")This is among the most famous examples of parataxis. There are no conjunctions or joining words used. The phrases are used equally, which means the phrases are placed with equal status.Example #2: Bleak House (By Charles Dickens)"Dogs, undistinguishable in mire. Horses, scarcely better-splashed to their very blinkers. Foot passengers, jostling one another's umbrellas, in a general infection of ill-temper, and losing their foothold at street corners..."This is also among the famous parataxis examples in literature. Here, the clauses are connected loosely, and create a lopping discourse. For example, at some places conjunctions are used lightly, such as "to" and "and."Example #3: Sula (By Toni Morrison) "Twenty-two years old, weak, hot, frightened, not daring to acknowledge the fact that he didn't know who or what he was ... with no past, no language, no tribe, no source, no address book, no comb, no pencil, no clock, no pocket handkerchief, no rug, no bed, no can opener, no faded postcard, no soap, no key, no tobacco pouch, no soiled underwear and nothing nothing nothing to do ... he was sure of one thing only: the unchecked monstrosity of his hands..."In this extract, a grammatically-equal relationship is created between the phrases and clauses. Also, there are no coordinating or subordinating conjunctions between the clauses and phrases.Example #4: Continuities (By Walt Whitman)"Nothing is ever really lost, or can be lost,No birth, identity, form—no object of the world.Nor life, nor force, nor any visible thing;Appearance must not foil, nor shifted sphere confuse thy brain.Ample are time and space - ample the fields of Nature..."In this excerpt, all the phrases and clauses carry equal weight. This creates the effect of piling up and compression.Example #5: Waiting for Godot (By Samuel Beckett)"out ... 'into this world ... 'this world ... 'tiny little thing ... 'before its time ... 'in a god for- ... 'what? ... 'girl? ... 'yes ... 'tiny little girl ... 'into this ... 'out into this ... 'before her time ... 'godforsaken hole called ... 'called ... 'no matter ... 'parents unknown ... 'unheard of ... 'he having vanished ... 'thin air ... 'no sooner buttoned up his breeches ... 'she similarly ... 'eight months later ... 'almost to the tick ... 'so no love ... 'spared that ... 'no love such as normally vented on the ... 'speechless infant ... 'in the home ... 'no ... 'nor indeed for that matter any of any kind ... 'no love of any kind ... 'at any subsequent stage ... "Beckett has not used formal constraints (conjunctions). The clauses are juxtaposed without any clear connection, explaining one another like a single idea, in spite of mixing longer and shorter sentences.Function of ParataxisParatactic sentences, clauses, and phrases are useful in explaining a rapid sequence of thoughts in poetry and prose. They could evoke feelings in a similar way as though they happened at once. It is a helpful device when describing a setting. In simple words, parataxis helps the readers to focus on a particular idea, thought, setting, or emotion. Also, cultural theorists use it in cultural texts where a series of events is shown side by side.

Play

Play is a literary form of writing for theatre, which narrates a story with elements of conflicts, tensions, and actions through dialogues of characters. For dramatic significance, it is divided into acts and scenes. The writers present their feelings, emotions, and ideas through their characters and make them speak. The playwright uses various dramatic elements to create more profound meanings and enhance understanding of the audience. Also, they insert text, apart from the actual dialogues of the characters, to unfold the description of characters on stage, their natural action, and psychological intentions. In this way, the writers make their texts emotive, lifelike and thought-provoking.Etymologically, 'play' is derived from the Greek word 'paizo' which means "to act" or "to perform."Elements of PlayA play has certain elements such as,Plot: It refers to the order of the events that occur in the play.Characters: The characters form a crucial part of the story and are interwoven with the plot of the play.Dialogue: It refers to the conversation or interactions between the characters in the play.Setting: It refers to the time and place where a story is set. It is one of the important parts of the play.Conflict: It refers to the challenge main characters need to solve to achieve their goals.Resolution: It is the unfolding or the solution to a complex issue in a story.Types of Plays There are many types of plays such as,Tragedy: These types of plays end on a tragic note and most likely a character's death.Comedy: These types of plays are meant to amuse the audience, and they end on a happy note.Domestic Play: These types of plays are based on the normal life of family and friends.Tragicomedy: It is a fictional work comprises of both tragedy as well as comedy.Melodrama: This type of has often exaggerated characters and episodes with songs and music for an emotive appeal to the audiences.Examples of Play from LiteratureExample #1Macbeth by William ShakespeareMacbeth is a famous tragic play first published in 1623. The play centers around the character of Macbeth, whose desire to become the king of Scotland at any cost and it becomes the reason for his tragic downfall. At the outset, he is seen as a brave and loyal Thane to King Duncan. However, after hearing the prophecies of the witches, he becomes paranoid and greedy. Tempted by prophecies of the witches and with his wife's motivation, he brutally kills King Duncan and becomes the king himself. Supernatural creatures also play a vital role in the play. They attack his weakness and tempt him to kill everyone who comes on his way to possess the crown. Out of greed, he also kills his friend, Banquo, Lady Macduff and her children and many other innocent souls to reach his goal. However, his evil deeds and greed pay him off in the form of his tragic demise. Hence, the play is the best example of tragedy because of the tragic flaw and moral weakness of the main character become the cause of his eventual downfall.Example #2Oedipus Rex by SophoclesSophocles, a famous Greek tragedian, wrote Oedipus Rex which is one of the famous Greek tragedies till date. The tragic play recounts the story of Oedipus, who becomes the king of Thebes, and unknowingly fulfills the prophecy by murdering his father, Laius, and marry his mother, Jocasta. The play opens when the King of Thebes, Oedipus addressing his people who are confused by an infliction, which is swiping them off. Therefore, they gather at the king's court to ask him to rescue them from this plague. According to the oracle, this plague is caused because the people of Thebes have not arrested and punished the murderer of their late king. Believing in the oracle, Oedipus promises to find and punish the culprit. He tries to investigate and soon finds out the bitter truth from the Oracle Tiresias. Overcome with guilt and grief over his ill fate, Oedipus blinds himself. Thus, this tragic play highlights the role of fate and chance which brings a disastrous end for their victims.Example #3 The Merchant of Venice by William ShakespeareA famous tragicomedy by William Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice was first published between 1596 and 1599. It was first performed in 1605. Shakespeare successfully blends the aspects of tragedy and comedy in this fictional work. The play centers on the character of Antonio, a Venetian merchant. He takes a loan from a Jew, Shylock, to help his friend, Bassanio to marry Portia, a wealthy lady who lives in Belmont. He gives them three thousand ducats with no interest. Shylock puts a condition that if Antonio fails to return the amount he has to give a pound of his flesh and Antonio agrees, believing that his ships will return on time. Then they leave for Belmont where Bassanio wins Portia's hand. Antonio fails to return the loan and Shylock almost prepares to cut out Antonio's heart. But, Portia, a lawyer stands with Antonio and saves him from Shylock. This play is a perfect tragicomedy. The writer has presented unremitting tragedy in the first three acts. However, the last two acts comprise the restorative comedy.Functions of the PlayA play functions as a tool to give reveal to one's thoughts through performance in front of the live audience. Writers skillfully feature certain situations to make the audience laugh at funny incidents as well as feel pity and fear for unfortunate circumstances or incidents. It enables the audience to understand and feel a lot out of less description. Also, it is a convenient way to present different characters and their inner thoughts in dramas. Moreover, it enables the writers to dramatize the story in a way that events and characters are easily brought to life through a theatrical performance.

Pleonasm

Pleonasm is derived from a Greek word that means "excess." It is a rhetorical device that can be defined as the use of two or more words (a phrase) to express an idea. These words are redundant, such as in these examples of pleonasm" "burning fire," and "black darkness." Sometimes, pleonasm is called "tautology," which is the repetition of words. Difference Between Oxymoron and PleonasmOxymoron is a combination of two contradictory terms. It is the opposite of pleonasm. This can appear in different types of texts due to an error, or used advertently to give paradoxical meanings. For example, "I like a smuggler. He is the only honest thief."However, pleonasm is a combination of two or more words which are more than those required for clear expression. For example, "I saw it with my own eyes."Types of Pleonasm There are two types of pleonasm as given below:Syntactic PleonasmThis occurs when the grammatical language makes specific functional words optional such as:"I know you will come.""I know that you will come."In the given pleonasm examples, the conjunction "that" is optional while joining a verb phrase with a sentence. Although both sentences are correct grammatically, the conjunction "that" is pleonastic.Semantic PleonasmSemantic pleonasm is related more to the style of the language than the grammar, such as given below:"I am eating a tuna fish"Here tuna is itself the name of a fish, and there is no need to add the word "fish." Therefore, the word fish is pleonastic in the sentence.Examples of Pleonasm in LiteratureExample #1: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare)"This was the most unkindest cut of all..."In this excerpt, Shakespeare has deliberately used the term "most unkindest" as pleonastic. He could have used unkindest only; however, most is added in order to emphasize and give an even clearer meaning.Example #2: Molloy (By Samuel Beckett)"Let me tell you this, when social workers offer you, free, gratis and for nothing, something to hinder you from swooning, which with them is an obsession, it is useless to recoil ..."In this example, the terms "free," "gratis," and "for nothing" have very similar meanings. The words are repeated to create linguistic and literary effects. In this way, the words free and nothing are highlighted. This is a semantic pleonasm.Example #3: Eaters of the Dead (By Michael Crichton) "All this I saw with my own eyes, and it was the most fearsome sight I ever witnessed..."The term "my own" is pleonastic, since the word "my" would have been enough to show possession. However, "own" is added to emphasize and clarify the meaning of the phrase.Example #4: City of the Beasts (By Isabel Allende)"These terrible things I have seen with my own eyes, and I have heard with my own ears, and touched with my own hands..."Here again, the sense of possession is expressed with the use of pleonasm. The word "own" is redundant in each bold phrase. This is a syntactic pleonasm.Example #5: Paradise Lost (By John Milton)"From that day mortal, and this happie StateShalt loose, expell'd from hence into a WorldOf woe and sorrow..."Milton is famous for using pleonastic language. Here, the word "hence" is employed in a redundant manner. In this context, the meaning of hence could be "because of the previous premise." It also means "henceforth." This is an example of semantic pleonasm.Example #6: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)"He was a man, take him for all in all, I shall not look upon his like again..."The dictum of Hamlet for his father, here the word "man," adds semantic meanings to the male personality. This is also a semantic pleonasm that is related to the style of language, enhancing the meaning of the word "man."Function of PleonasmPleonastic words are employed to achieve linguistic, poetic, and literary effects. Since they are used as a rhetorical repetition, they are helpful for reinforcing a contention, an idea, or a question rendering an expression easier and clearer to understand. Also, they serve as a part of idiomatic language in professional and scholarly writing.

Plot

Plot is a literary term used to describe the events that make up a story, or the main part of a story. These events relate to each other in a pattern or a sequence. The structure of a novel depends on the organization of events in the plot of the story. Plot is known as the foundation of a novel or story, around which the characters and settings are built. It is meant to organize information and events in a logical manner. When writing the plot of a piece of literature, the author has to be careful that it does not dominate the other parts of the story.Primary Elements of a PlotThere are five main elements in a plot.Exposition or IntroductionThis is the beginning of the story, where characters and setting are established. The conflict or main problem is introduced as well.Rising ActionRising action which occurs when a series of events build up to the conflict. The main characters are established by the time the rising action of a plot occurs, and at the same time, events begin to get complicated. It is during this part of a story that excitement, tension, or crisis is encountered.ClimaxIn the climax, or the main point of the plot, there is a turning point of the story. This is meant to be the moment of highest interest and emotion, leaving the reader wondering what is going to happen next.Falling ActionFalling action, or the winding up of the story, occurs when events and complications begin to resolve. The result of the actions of the main characters are put forward.ResolutionResolution, or the conclusion, is the end of a story, which may occur with either a happy or a tragic ending.Examples of Plot in Literature Example #1: Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone (By J. K. Rowling)Among the examples of plot in modern literature, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone is probably the most familiar to both readers and moviegoers. The plot of the story begins when Harry learns that Professor Snape is after the Sorcerer's Stone. The Professor lets loose a troll, who nearly kills Harry and his friends. In addition, Harry finds out that Hagrid let out the secret of the giant dog to a stranger in return for a dragon, which means that Snape can now reach the Sorcerer's Stone.Example #2: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen)A very good plot example in romantic fiction appears in the book Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. The plot of the story begins when Lizzie's sister, Jane, falls in love with Darcy's friend named Mr. Bingley. Lizzie develops and interest in Mr. Wickham, who accuses Darcy of destroying him financially.When Lizzie goes to meet her friend, she runs into Mr. Darcy, who proposes, and Lizzie rejects. She then writes him a letter telling him why she dislikes him. He writes back, clearing up all misunderstandings and accusations. Jane runs away with Mr. Wickham, and Lizzie realizes that Mr. Darcy is not as bad a man as she had thought him to be.Function of PlotA plot is one of the most important parts of a story, and has many different purposes. Firstly, the plot focuses attention on the important characters and their roles in the story. It motivates the characters to affect the story, and connects the events in an orderly manner. The plot creates a desire for the reader to go on reading by absorbing them in the middle of the story, ensuring they want to know what happens next.The plot leads to the climax, but by gradually releasing the story in order to maintain readers' interest. During the plot of a book, a reader gets emotionally involved, connecting with the book, not allowing himself to put the book down. Eventually, the plot reveals the entire story, giving the reader a sense of completion that he has finished the story and reached a conclusion.The plot is what forms a memory in readers' minds, allowing them to think about the book and even making them want to read it again. By identifying and understanding the plot, the reader is able to understand the message being conveyed by the author, and the explicit or implicit moral of the story.

Point of View

Point of view is the angle of considering things, which shows us the opinion or feelings of the individuals involved in a situation. In literature, point of view is the mode of narration that an author employs to let the readers "hear" and "see" what takes place in a story, poem, or essay. Point of view is a reflection of the opinion an individual from real life or fiction has. Examples of point of view belong to one of these three major kinds:First person point of view involves the use of either of the two pronouns "I" or "we.""I felt like I was getting drowned with shame and disgrace."Second person point of view employs the pronoun "you.""Sometimes you cannot clearly discern between anger and frustration."Third person point of view uses pronouns like "he," "she," "it," "they," or a name." Stewart is a principled man. He acts by the book and never lets you deceive him easily."Examples of Point of View in LiteratureExample #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)Hamlet, the protagonist, explains the feeling of melancholy that afflicts him after his father's death:"I have of late, — but wherefore I know not, — lost all my mirth, forgone all custom of exercises; and indeed, it goes so heavily with my disposition that this goodly frame, the earth, seems to me a sterile promontory."This is one of the best first-person point of view examples in literature. The use of first-person point of view gives us a glimpse into the real inner feelings of frustration of the character. The writer has utilized the first-person point of view to expose Hamlet's feelings in a detailed way.Example #2: Daffodils (By William Wordsworth)"I gazed - and gazed - but little thoughtWhat wealth the show to me had brought."Notice how William Wordsworth uses the first-person point of view to express his subjective feelings about the scene of daffodils in his famous poem. The use of the pronoun "I" gives a special quality to the feelings expressed in these lines. The reader can see that the poet has employed first-person point of view to share with us his own personal emotions.Example #3: The Sun also Rises (By Ernest Hemingway) Ernest Hemingway, in The Sun also Rises, employs the first-person point of view which is peculiar to his style."I could picture it. I have a habit of imagining the conversations between my friends. We went out to the Cafe Napolitain to have an aperitif and watch the evening crowd on the Boulevard."The use of two first person pronouns, "I" and "we," gives these lines the quality of having a first person point of view. The reader can feel like he or she is hearing the dialogue directly from the characters.Example #4: Bright Lights, Big City (By Jay Mclnemey)"You are not the kind of guy who would be at a place like this at this time of the morning. But here you are, and you cannot say that the terrain is entirely unfamiliar, although the details are fuzzy."Here, the writer illustrates the use of second-person point of view with the use of the pronoun "you." This technique may be less common, but it has its own strength of hooking the reader right from the start.Example #5: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen)"When Jane and Elizabeth were alone, the former, who had been cautious in her praise of Mr. Bingley before, expressed to her sister how very much she admired him.""He is just what a young man ought to be," said she, "sensible, good humoured, lively; and I never saw such happy manners! — so much ease, with such perfect good breeding!"These lines demonstrate a fine use of the third-person point of view. The excerpt shows the reader two different ways of using third person point of view. Jane Austen first presents two leading characters -Jane and Elizabeth - from the third-person point of view, and then shows us that the two characters are talking about Bingley from their own third-person point of view. This can be a good example of the use of dual third person point of view - first by the author, and then by the characters.Function of Point of View Point of view is an integral tool of description in the author's hands to portray personal emotions or characters' feelings about an experience or situation. Writers use a point of view to express effectively what they want to convey to their readers.

Polyptoton

Polyptoton is a stylistic device that is a rhetorical repetition of the same root word. However, each time the word is repeated in a different way, such as the words luppiter, lovi, lovis, and lovem are derived from the root word "love." Features of PolyptotonPolyptoton is the use of excessive words instead of shorter expressions. It involves an indirect way of expressing things. These words can help embellish sentences to create striking effects. In fact, it happens when the grammatical meaning can be expressed by using syntactical construction instead of morphological marking. The words in polyptoton share the same etymologies. It is sometimes used as superlative and comparative adjectives formed by adding words like "more" or "most" instead of suffixes.Similarity with Antanaclasis Antanaclasis is another linguistic device that is similar to polyptoton, wherein the similar words are repeated several times, but each time with different meanings, in the same phrase or sentence. For instance:"The only thing we have to fear is fear itself."(Franklin D. Roosevelt)Examples of Polyptoton in LiteratureExample #1: The Dry Salvages (By T. S. Eliot)"There is no end of it, the voiceless wailing,No end to the withering of withered flowers,To the movement of pain that is painless and motionless,To the drift of the sea and the drifting wreckage,The bone's prayer to Death its God. Only the hardly, barely prayablePrayer of the one Annunciation..."There are three Polyptoton examples in the above excerpt. In the second line, the word "wither" is used in two ways (verb and adjective). Also, in the fourth line the word "drift" (noun and adjective), and the word "pray" have been used to give different senses (adjectives and nouns) each time.Example #2: Trolius and Cressida (By William Shakespeare)"The Greeks are strong, and skillful to their strength, fierce to their skill, and to their fierceness valiant ..."In this excerpt, Shakespeare has repeated three words in different ways. Each use of these words creates a different sense. The word, "strong" is repeated as "strength." In the same way, the root words "fierce" and "skill" are also used twice.Example #3: Maud A Monodrama (By Alfred Lord Tennyson) "My own heart's heart, and ownest own, farewell...My dream? do I dream of bliss?I have walk'd awake with Truth ... For my dark-dawning youth,Darken'd watching a mother declineAnd that dead man at her heart and mine...Yet so did I let my freshness die...Seal'd her mine from her first sweet breath.Mine, mine by a right, from birth till death.Mine, mine—our fathers have sworn."This is one of the perfect examples of polyptoton in which Tennyson has used the same word in various forms. Here, it is creating poetic effect by contrasting different forms.Example #4: Richard II (By William Shakespeare)"With eager feeding food doth choke the feeder ..."Here, Shakespeare provides an interesting contrast of different forms of the same root word, "feed." This repetition also draws attention towards the paradoxical meaning of the word.Example #5: Barchester Towers (By Anthony Trollope)"The signora at every grimace and at every bow smiled a little smile and bowed a little bow..."This is another very good example of polyptoton. Here, the words bow and smile are used in multiple forms. "Bow" is used as a noun and then as a verb. Similarly, "smile" is used twice in two ways with different meanings.Example #6: Sonnet 116 (By William Shakespeare)"Love is not loveWhich alters when it alteration finds,Or bends with the remover to remove ..."Again Shakespeare has employed polyptoton as a stylistic device. The word "alter" is used as a verb, and in the same line also as a noun. In the third line, "remove" is repeated in a different sense but the root words are same.Function of PolyptotonPolyptoton enhances the meaning of a word persuasively and dramatically, in writing or speech, by employing a cognate of the words. It is also used to create rhetorical effect by the articulation of a speech or statement. Although it helps provide an exciting contrast of different words in a text, it is also in didactic sense to create dramatic and poetic effects. Besides, it brings a paradox or an irony in a text to the surface. It is widely used in popular dramas and poems, while several political leaders have also used this device in their speeches to emphasize specific points.

Polysyndeton

Polysyndeton is a stylistic device in which several coordinating conjunctions are used in succession in order to achieve an artistic effect. Polysyndeton examples are found in literature and in day-to-day conversations. The term polysyndeton comes from a Greek word meaning "bound together." It makes use of coordinating conjunctions like and, or, but, and nor (mostly and and or) which are used to join successive words, phrases, or clauses in such a way that these conjunctions are even used where they might have been omitted. For example, in the sentence, "We have ships and men and money and stores," the coordinating conjunction "and" is used in quick succession to join words occurring together. In a normal situation, the coordinating conjunction "and" is used to join the last two words of the list, and the rest of the words in the list are separated or joined by a comma.Polysyndeton vs. AsyndetonPolysyndeton is opposite to another stylistic device known as "asyndeton." In an asyndeton, the words in a list are separated by commas, and no conjunctions are used to join the words in a list. Thomas S. Kane describes the difference between the two devices, saying that they are nothing more than the techniques of handling a long series of words or lists.Polysyndeton uses conjunctions after every word or term, while asyndeton uses no conjunctions but only commas. For example: "Jane's days became a blur of meaningless events - wake up, brush teeth, make the coffee, get the mail, fix dinner, watch TV. It was hard to keep depression at bay."Examples of Polysyndeton in Literature Example #1: The Holy Bible, Joshua 7:24 (By the Prophet Joshua)"And Joshua, and all of Israel with him, took Achan the son of Zerah, and the silver, and the garment, and the wedge of gold, and his sons, and his daughters, and his oxen, and his asses, and his sheep, and his tent, and all that he had."This is among the best examples of polysyndeton found in classical or religious text. See how the conjunction "and" has been used in quick succession to join all the items given in this text.Example #2: After the Storm (By Ernest Hemingway)"I said, 'Who killed him?' and he said 'I don't know who killed him, but he's dead all right,' and it was dark and there was water standing in the street and no lights or windows broke and boats all up in the town and trees blown down and everything all blown and I got a skiff and went out and found my boat where I had her inside Mango Key and she was right only she was full of water."Hemingway has used "and" as a polysyndeton in this passage taken from "After the Storm." Using this literary device, Hemmingway is able to make his readers feel the anxiety that his character is feeling.Example #3: I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (By Maya Angelou) Maya Angelou, a popular female poet, is well known for her use of polysyndeton, which can seem excessive at times. This is what she has written in her story I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings."Let the whitefolks have their money and power and segregation and sarcasm and big houses and schools and lawns like carpets, and books, and mostly-mostly-let them have their whiteness."The continuity in the entire sentence is remarkable, and the rhythm is exhilarating.Example #4: Dombey and Son (By Charles Dickens)"There were frowzy fields, and cow-houses, and dunghills, and dustheaps, and ditches, and gardens, and summer-houses, and carpet-beating grounds, at the very door of the Railway. Little tumuli of oyster shells in the oyster season, and of lobster shells in the lobster season, and of broken crockery and faded cabbage leaves in all seasons, encroached upon its high places."Charles Dickens is also well-known for his use of polysyndeton, as well as commas - often using both of these devices. You can see the effects in this passage taken from Dombey and Son.Function of PolysyndetonPolysyndeton performs several functions. Not only does it join words, phrases, and clauses, bringing continuity to a sentence, but it acts also as a stylistic device that brings rhythm to the text with the repetition of conjunctions in quick succession. It is also employed as a tool to lay emphasis to the ideas the conjunctions connect.

Metaphor

A Metaphor is a figure of speech that makes an implicit, implied, or hidden comparison between two things that are unrelated, but which share some common characteristics. In other words, a resemblance of two contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some common characteristics. In simple English, when you portray a person, place, thing, or an action as being something else, even though it is not actually that "something else," you are speaking metaphorically. The following phrase is an example of metaphor, "My brother is the black sheep of the family," because he is neither a sheep nor is he black. However, we can use this comparison to describe an association of a black sheep with that person. A black sheep is an unusual animal, which typically stays away from the herd, and the person being described shares similar characteristics.However, the metaphor figure of speech is different from a simile, because we do not use "like" or "as" to develop a comparison in metaphor poems and metaphor sentences. It makes an implicit or hidden comparison and not an explicit one.Let's now take a look at some common examples of meptahors.Common Speech Examples of MetaphorSo, what is a Metaphor? Most of us think of a metaphor as a device used in songs or poems only, and that it has nothing to do with our everyday life. In fact, all of us in our routine life speak, write, and think in metaphors. We cannot avoid them. Metaphors are sometimes constructed through our common language, and they are called "conventional metaphors."Let's explore a few metaphor meaning and examples such as calling a person a "night owl," or an "early bird," or saying "life is a journey," are common metaphor examples which are heard and understood by most of us. Below are some more conventional metaphors we often hear in our daily lives:My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he was too angry.)The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that the assignment was not difficult.)It is going to be clear skies from now on. (This implies that clear skies are not a threat and life is going to be without hardships)The skies of his future began to darken. (Darkness is a threat; therefore, this implies that the coming times are going to be hard for him.)Her voice is music to his ears. (This implies that her voice makes him feel happy)He saw the soul of dust when passing through the dust storm.Chaos is the breeding ground of order.War is the mother of all battles.Her dance is a great poem.A new road to freedom passes through this valley of death.My conscience is my barometer.His white face shows his concern.His kisses are like roses.He married her to have a trophy wife.Laughter is the best medicine.Words are daggers when spoken in anger.His words are pearls of wisdom.Metaphor Examples in Literature Metaphors are used in all types of literature, but not often to the degree they are used in poetry. This is because metaphor poem is meant to communicate complex images and feelings to readers, and metaphors often state the comparisons most emotively. Now that we know the definition of metaphor, let's take a look at some examples.Example #1: The Sun Rising (By John Donne)"She's all states, and all princes, I ..."John Donne, a metaphysical poet, was well-known for his abundant use of metaphors throughout his poetical works. In his well-known work, The Sun Rising, the speaker scolds the sun for waking him and his beloved. Among the most evocative metaphors in literature, he explains "She is all states, and all princes, I." This line demonstrates the speaker's belief that he and his beloved are richer than all states, kingdoms, and rulers in the entire world because of the love that they share.Example #2: Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer's Day (By William Shakespeare)"But thy eternal summer shall not fade ..."William Shakespeare was the best exponent of metaphors, having made wide-ranging use of them throughout his works. Sonnet 18, also known as Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer's Day, is an extended metaphor between the love of the speaker and the fairness of the summer season. He writes that "thy eternal summer," here taken to mean the love of the subject, "shall not fade."Example #3: When I Have Fears (By John Keats) "Before high-pil'd books, in charact'ryHold like rich garners the full-ripened grain;"The great Romantic poet John Keats suffered great losses in his life — the death of his father in an accident and the deaths of his mother and brother through tuberculosis. When Keats himself began displaying signs of tuberculosis at the age of 22, he wrote When I Have Fears, a poem rich with metaphors concerning life and death. In the lines above, he employs a double metaphor. Writing poetry is implicitly compared with reaping and sowing, and both these acts represent the emptiness of a life unfulfilled creatively.Example #4: Vestiges (By Van Jordan)"... and jump in the sea and say, follow me,and know you would. The sea is coldand it's deep, too, I'd joke,standing at the edge of the boat's bow.A wind breathes across the sea,joining gently the edges of time."Just spot different metaphors in these six lines by Van Jordan. This is the "sea" of time. This is an extended metaphor that is further expanded to its feature of coldness, depth, and then edges and voyage through it.Example #5: The Sun Rising (By John Donne)"Busy old fool, unruly sun,Why dost thou thus,Through windows, and through curtains call on us?"This is another example of a good metaphor where the sun is being called a fool by John Done, who is famous for his use of weird metaphors.Example #6: Paradise Lost, Book 1 (By John Milton)"Invoke thy aid to my adventrous Song,That with no middle flight intends to soarAbove th' Aonian Mount"This is a good metaphor by Milton, from his epic Paradise Lost. Here, Milton has compared his poetry to a dove.Example #7: i carry your heart with me (By E. E. Cummings)"...and it's you are whatever a moon has always meantand whatever a sun will always sing is you ..."Here E. E. Cummings has compared his beloved to the moon, as well as to the sun. This is another good metaphor by a modern poet.Example #8: The Storm (By Kate Chopin)"Her mouth was a fountain of delight. And when he possessed her, they seemed to swoon together at the very borderland of life's mystery."Just check the excellence of using a metaphor in just one sentence. The second one is its extension.Example #9: The Call of Cthulhu (By H.P. Lovecraft)"We live on a placid island of ignorance in the midst of black seas of infinity, and it was not meant that we should voyage far. The sciences, each straining in its own direction, have hitherto harmed us little; but some day the piecing together of dissociated knowledge will open up such terrifying vistas of reality, and of our frightful position therein, that we shall either go mad from the revelation or flee from the light into the peace and safety of a new dark age.""Lovecraft has beautifully used metaphors to describe the situation in this paragraph. Just read the underlined phrases to see this metaphorical beauty.Metaphor Meaning and FunctionFrom the above arguments, explanations, and examples, we can easily infer the function of metaphors; both in our daily lives and in a piece of literature. Using appropriate metaphors appeals directly to the senses of listeners or readers, sharpening their imaginations to comprehend what is being communicated to them. Moreover, it gives a life-like quality to our conversations and the characters of fiction or poetry. Metaphors are also ways of thinking, offering the listeners and the readers fresh ways of examining ideas and viewing the world.

Accumulation

Accumulation is derived from a Latin word which means "pile up." It is a stylistic device that is defined as a list of words which embody similar abstract or physical qualities or meanings, with the intention to emphasize the common qualities that words hold. It is also an act of accumulating the scattered points. Accumulation examples are found in literary pieces and in daily conversations.xamples of Accumulation in LiteratureExample #1: Henry V (by William Shakespeare)"Then shall our names,Familiar in his mouth as household words,Harry the King, Bedford and Exeter,Warwick and Talbot, Salisbury and Gloucester,Be in their flowing cups freshly remembered."In this excerpt, Shakespeare has gathered similar words to describe King Harry. Henry memorizes the name and nobility of the king by mentioning: "Bedford, Exeter, Warwick, Talbot, Salisbury, and Gloucester."Example #2: Ulysses (by James Joyce)"What syllabus of intellectual pursuits was simultaneously possible? Snapshot photography, comparative study of religions, folklore relative to various amatory and superstitious practices, contemplation of celestial constellations...."If you are searching for examples of accumulation in literature, James Joyce is the author to check out as he is famous for using this literary device. Here, Joyce has accumulated similar and related words in the form of a list. There are options given between different intellectual careers. These include "snapshot photography, comparative study of religions, superstitious practices."Example #3: The Little Virtues (by Natalia Ginzburg) "I don't know how to manage my time; he does.I don't know how to dance and he does.I don't know how to type and he does.I don't know how to drive ... "The writer has used negation in the given sentences. All four lines are written in accumulated form, and the scattered points are listed together, hence contributing to the vocabulary of the readers.Example #4: A Modest Proposal (by Jonathan Swift)"... having no other motive than the public good of my country, by advancing our trade, providing for infants, relieving the poor, and giving some pleasure to the rich ... "This is a very good example of accumulation wherein Swift gives suggestions on how to get rid of poverty. He has listed various motives and ways to resolve the problems, adding and contributing to the meaning of the sentences.Example #5: When Will Jesus Bring the Pork Chops (by George Carlin)I'm a modern man, digital and smoke-free;a man for the millennium.A diversified, multi-cultural, post-modern deconstructionist;politically, anatomically and ecologically incorrect.I've been uplinked and downloaded,I've been inputted and outsourced.I know the upside of downsizing,I know the downside of upgrading."Here, George Carlin has used three categories of accumulation. In the first two lines, "a modern man" is described as "digital and smoke-free," and as "a man for the millennium." In the following two lines, he added, "a diversified, multi-cultural ... politically ... incorrect."Example #6: Holy Thursday (by William Blake)"Is this a holy thing to seeIn a rich and fruitful land,Babes reduced to misery,Fed with cold and usurous hand?Is that trembling cry a song?Can it be a song of joy?And so many children poor?And their fields are bleak and bare,And their ways are filled with thorns."Here is the accumulation of three questions that induce a resentful response. Similarly, three assertions come in the third stanza in a similar grammatical pattern. These are: "And their son does never shine," "And their fields are bleak and bare," and "And their ways are filled ..."Example #7: Ulysses (by James Joyce)"Rangoon beans, strikes of tomatoes, drums of figs, drills of Swedes, spherical potatoes and tallies of iridescent kale, York and Savoy, and trays of onions, pearls of the earth, and punnets of mushrooms and custard marrows......and rape and red green yellow brown russet sweet big bitter ripe pomellated apples and chips of strawberries and sieves of gooseberries, pulpy and pelurious, and strawberries fit for princes and raspberries from their canes... "This excerpt is a perfect example of accumulation. In the beginning, there is a listing of flowers and vegetables. These include "Rangoon beans, strikes of tomatoes, drums of figs," and again an accumulation of different colors, such as "red green yellow brown russet."Function of Accumulation Accumulation is used in literature, poetry and all types of rhetorical writing. The basic function is to make language livelier and contribute to the meanings of the words. Also, it describes the qualities of an object through different explanations, if otherwise it would be left vague or ambiguous.

Enthymeme

An argumentative statement in which the writer or the speaker omits one of the major or minor premises, does not clearly pronounce it, or keeps this premise implied, is called an "enthymeme." However, the omitted premise in an enthymeme remains understandable even if is not clearly expressed. For instance, in the sentence, "Where there is smoke, there is fire," the hidden premise is: fire causes smoke. Enthymeme is a rhetorical device like syllogism, and is known as truncated or rhetoric syllogism. Its purpose is to influence the audience, and allow them to make inferences. Such inferences can be easily recognized, as these statements comes after "because."Enthymeme vs. SyllogismEnthymeme is like syllogism, and yet different. The difference is that a syllogism is a deductive logic that contains three parts, and in which both premises have valid conclusion such as:All reptiles are cold-blooded animals. (Major premise)A lizard is a cold-blooded animal. (Minor premise)Therefore, a lizard is a reptile. (Conclusion)Whereas in enthymeme, writers keep one premise implied, which means both premises do not have valid conclusions. It is an incomplete argument such as:He could not have committed this heinous crime. (Major premise)I have known him since he was a child. (Minor premise)The hidden premise: He is innocent by nature and, therefore, could never be a criminal.Popular Examples of Enthymeme "Senator, I served with Jack Kennedy. I knew Jack Kennedy. Jack Kennedy was a friend of mine. Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy." - Lloyd Bentsen to Dan Quayle in U.S. Vice-Presidential debate in 1988. (The hidden premise: Jack Kennedy was a great man, but you are not.)He is a U.S. citizen, so he is entitled to due process. (The hidden premise: All citizens of the U.S. are entitled to due process.)With a name like Bonanza, it has to be good. (The hidden premise: Bonanza is a prestigious company, therefore it is good.)Examples of Enthymeme in LiteratureExample #1: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare)Plebian: "Mark'd ye his words? He would not take the crown. Therefore 'tis certain he was not ambitious."From the above line from Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, it is clear that Brutus is an ambitious and honorable man. Thus, a major hidden premise is that all honorable and respectable men are ambitious.Example #2: New York Times Interview, May 2, 2003 (By George Bush)"The battle of Iraq is one victory in a war on terror that began on September the 11th, 2001, and still goes on ... With those attacks, the terrorists and their supporters declared war on the United States. And war is what they got."This is an example of classic enthymematic argumentative speech by U.S. President Bush. He stated that the reason the U.S. declared war against Iraq was because the U.S. was attacked on Sept 11, 2001. However, the missing piece in this argument is — Saddam Hussein was the culprit, and involved in the 9/11 attacks.Example #3: Beauty: When the Other Dancer Is the Self (By Alice Walker) "[M]y parents decide to buy my brothers guns. These are not 'real' guns. They shoot 'BBs,' copper pellets my brothers say will kill birds. Because I am a girl, I do not get a gun."In this example, the speaker omits the major premise that her parents have not given her a gun. However, she directly lets the readers know the reason why she does not have the gun.Example #4: Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student (By Edward P. J. Corbett and Robert J. Connors)"The gun has the defendant's fingerprints on the trigger. He is clearly guilty!"In this example, the hidden premise is that fingerprints on an object show who has used it, therefore the defendant's fingerprints on the gun proves he is guilty.Function of EnthymemeThe usage of enthymeme is very common in advertisements, political speeches, and literature. It makes the audience work out their own conclusions, and nudges them to read further to get a clearer picture of the premise or an idea. By forcing the audience to take a final step, it strengthens the argument of the writer. Often enthymemes help to hide the underlying idea upon which a major argument relies. In addition, the purpose of using an enthymeme is to persuade the audience by using implied arguments.

Elision

An elision is the removal of an unstressed syllable, consonants, or letters from a word or phrase, for the purpose of decreasing the number of letters or syllables when mixing words together. The missing letter is replaced by an apostrophe. Generally, the middle or end letter or syllable is eliminated, or two words are blended together, and an apostrophe is inserted. Difference Between Contraction and ElisionBy merely looking at contraction and elision examples, one would think the two are the same. However, there is a slight difference between them. Contraction is a more general term referring to the combination of two words to form a shorter word. For instance, can't is a contraction of "can" + "not," which is a combination of two words. On the other hand, elision is a specific term. It is the omission of sounds, syllables, or phrases, and replacing them with an apostrophe. For instance, ne'er is an elided form of "never." Similarly, gonna is an elision of the phrase "going to."Examples of Elision in Literature Example #1: Rape of Lock (By Alexander Pope)"What dire offence from am'rous causes springs,What mighty contests rise from trivial things,I sing—This verse to Caryl, Muse! is due:This, ev'n Belinda may vouchsafe to view...Say what strange motive, Goddess! could compelA well-bred lord t'assault a gentle belle?O say what stranger cause, yet unexplor'd,Could make a gentle belle reject a lord...Sol thro' white curtains shot a tim'rous ray,And op'd those eyes that must eclipse the day;Now lap-dogs give themselves the rousing shake..."In this excerpt, Pope has elided several words, such as amorous, which is elided into "am'rous," even into "ev'n," unexplored into "unexplor'd," and similarly, through and opened are shortened to maintain regular pentameter.Example #2: Dr. Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe)"Settle thy studies, Faustus, and beginTo sound the depth of that thou wilt profess:Having commenc'd, be a divine in show,Sweet Analytics, 'tis thou hast ravish'd me!Is, to dispute well, logic's chiefest end?Then read no more; thou hast attain'd that end:Be a physician, Faustus; heap up gold,Why, Faustus, hast thou not attain'd that end?Whereby whole cities have escap'd the plague,And thousand desperate maladies been cur'd?The god thou serv'st is thine own appetite,Wherein is fix'd the love of Belzebub:To him I'll build an altar and a church..."Elision is employed perfectly in Dr.Faustus. In this excerpt, the author has eliminated unstressed syllables in order to give a smooth flow to the speech. The elided words are marked in bold.Example #3: Tam O'Shanter (By Robert Burns) "Whiles holding fast his guid blue bonnet,Whiles crooning o'er an auld Scots sonnet,Whiles glow'ring round wi prudent cares,Lest bogles catch him unawares:Kirk-Alloway was drawing nigh,Where ghaists and houlets nightly cry."In this excerpt, the elided words include "o'er" and "glow'ring". The vowel "e" is eliminated and replaced with an apostrophe. Through elision the rhythm and meter of the poem is maintained.Example #4: A Midsummer Night's Dream (By William Shakespeare)"But with thy brawls thou hast disturb'd our sportThe ox hath therefore stretch'd his yoke in vain,The ploughman lost his sweat, and the green cornHath rotted ere his youth attain'd a beard;And crows are fatted with the murrion flock;The nine men's morris is fill'd up with mud..."Here the word disturbed is elided into "disturb'd." In a similar way, stretched, attained, and filled are elided.Function of ElisionUsually used deliberately, elisions are often found in prose and poetry with the objective to continue a regular meter, or to create flow in iambic pentameter. Since a specific meter is required, elision is employed to achieve the set number of syllables necessary to create flow in a piece. Several other languages use elision to cut down the number of words or to improve the flow of speech.

End-Stopped Line

An end-stopped line is a poetic device in which a pause comes at the end of a syntactic unit (sentence, clause, or phrase). This pause can be expressed in writing as a punctuation mark, such as a colon, semi-colon, period, or full stop. According to A. C. Bradley, a line would be an end-stopped line, when the meter and sense both make a natural pause at its end such as in this line:"Yet to be known shortens my made intent ..."(King Lear, by William Shakespeare)Opposite of EnjambmentEnjambment is the opposite of end-stopped line. Thus, examples of end-stopped line should never be confused with enjambment examples. When a break or pause comes at the end of a line or sentence, it is called an end-stopped line. However, when a break comes in the middle of a phrase or line and the idea moves on to the next line, it is called "enjambment." Like in these lines:"... I am not prone to weeping, as our sexCommonly are, the want of which vain dew..."(A Winter's Tale by William Shakespeare)Examples of End-Stopped Line in Literature Example #1: Bright Star (By John Keats)"Bright Star, would I were as stedfast as thou art —Not in lone splendor hung aloft the night,And watching, with eternal lids apart,Like nature's patient, sleepless Eremite ..."These lines are very good example of end-stopped line. Each line ends with a punctuation mark, followed by a pause, which gives a sense of a separate unit. These pauses give rhythm and tempo to the poem.Example #2: An Essay on Criticism (By Alexander Pope)"A little learning is a dangerous thing;Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring.There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain,And drinking largely sobers us again."These lines all end with grammatical breaks. Also, these end-stopped lines contain complete phrases and make sense. Here, each sentence corresponds to the length of a line, and that pause slows down the pace of poem.Example #3: Sonnet 18 (By William Shakespeare) "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?Thou art more lovely and more temperate.Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,And summer's lease hath all too short a date ..."This excerpt is a perfect example of end-stopped line. All of these lines carry a pause at the end. There is a pause in both meter and sense; therefore, this device gives a complete poetic effect.Example #4: Alley Cat Love Song (By Dana Gioia)"Come into the garden, Fred,For the neighborhood tabby is gone.Come into the garden, Fred.I have nothing by my flea collar on,And the scent of catnip has gone to my head.I'll wait by the screen door till dawn.The fireflies court in the sweetgum tree.The nightjar calls from the pine,And she seems to say in her rhapsody,"Oh, mustard-bown Fred, be mine!"The full moon lights my whiskers afire,And the fur goes erect on my spine ..."End-stopped line is used in this entire poem where each line ends with a pause marked by a punctuation sign. This gives rhythmic and poetic effect. Apart from that, it provides greater flexibility to the poet.Example #5: The Burning Babe (By Robert Southwell)"As I in hoary winter's night stood shivering in the snow,Surprised I was with sudden heat, which made my heart to glow;And lifting up a fearful eye to view what fire was near,A pretty babe all burning bright did in the air appear ..."In the above lines, the ends of the lines correspond to the ending of the clause. Also, there are strong breaks at the closing of each line, which helps making the meaning explicit.Function of End-Stopped LineThe purpose of using end-stopped lines is to give poetic and rhythmic effect to the literary text. They tend to slow down the speed and give a clear idea of each line by creating a break at the end. Besides, it provides regularity to the meter of a poetic text. End-stopped lines make poetry more coherent and accessible, and helps the readers ponder on the sentences. Hence, the reader is able to explore deeper meanings and sense in lines where end-stop is given.

Argument

An argument is the main statement of a poem, an essay, a short story, or a novel, which usually appears as an introduction, or a point on which the writer will develop his work in order to convince his readers. Literature does not merely entertain. It also intends to shape the outlook of readers. Therefore, an argument does not intend to serve only as an introduction, but it attracts the reader's focus to an issue that will be made clear gradually.Common Argument ExamplesIn our everyday life, we use different arguments in our discussions to convince others to accept our viewpoints. We do it in the same way in literature, meaning we state what we believe is true, and then we gradually build an argument around it to make others believe it is true as well.For example, the subject of an argument might be, "The internet is a good invention." Then, we support this contention with logical reasons, such as "It is a source of endless information," and "It is a hub of entertainment," and so on. In the end, we conclude the argument by giving our verdict.Examples of Argument in Literature Let us now analyze a few examples of argument from literature:Example #1: David Copperfield (By Charles Dickens)Charles Dickens starts his novel David Copperfield with this literary argument:"Whether I shall turn out to be the hero of my own life, or whether that station will be held by anybody else, these pages must show."The above opening line is considered one of the best opening lines of a novel. It becomes the main statement or argument of the novel, as the whole novel depicts the adventures of the narrator, David. Many people let him down, and many others support him in hard times. In the end, he alone was not the hero of his life, but there were others who deserve the same status.Example #2: Paradise Lost (By John Milton)John Milton provides his argument or purpose of the poem in the first five lines of Paradise Lost, Book I:"Of Man's First Disobedience, and the FruitOf that Forbidden Tree, whose mortal tasteBrought Death into the World, and all our woe,With loss of Eden, till one greater ManRestore us, and regain the blissful Seat..."In the above lines, Milton states the reasons why man was thrown out of Eden, what is the reason for all our "woes," and how "one greater Man" (Jesus Christ) restored our status. The rest of the epical poem develops this argument - to "justify the ways of God to men".Example #3: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen) Similarly, the opening lines of Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice give a suitable example of argument:"It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife."The plot of the novel revolves around this argument. We see girls and their parents hunting for rich bachelors. The eligible bachelors seem to have no other worries in their life except looking for beautiful partners. Hence, we see a game of matchmaking occupying the entire novel.Example #4: Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By S. T. Coleridge)S. T. Coleridge appended his argument at the beginning of his poem Rime of the Ancient Mariner. He writes:"How a Ship having passed the Line was driven by storms to the cold Country towards the South Pole; and how from thence she made her course to the tropical Latitude of the Great Pacific Ocean; and of the strange things that befell; and in what manner the Ancyent Marinere came back to his own Country."Coleridge gives us a summary of his poem in a nutshell.Function of ArgumentLiterature, on face value, may be seen as a tool to entertain us - with attractive verse, with sweet melody, or with a story with instances of humor or emotion displayed by interesting characters. However, this is not its ultimate aim. Writers consider literature as a powerful tool in their hands to shape or reform our thinking. Arguments come into play at this time. Writers carefully play with words, as well as giving reasons and examples, to persuade us to their points of view. Our outlook is molded by words that also entertain us.

Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay is a type of essay that presents arguments about both sides of an issue. It could be that both sides are presented equally balanced, or it could be that one side is presented more forcefully than the other. It all depends on the writer, and what side he supports the most. The general structure of an argumentative essay follows this format: Introduction: Attention Grabber / hook, Background Information, Thesis StatementBody: Three body paragraphs (three major arguments)Counterargument: An argument to refute earlier arguments and give weight to the actual positionConclusion: Rephrasing the thesis statement, major points, call to attention, or concluding remarks.Models for Argumentative EssaysThere are two major models besides this structure given above, which is called a classical model. Two other models are the Toulmin and Rogerian models.Toulmin model is comprised of an introduction with a claim or thesis, followed by presentation of data to support the claim. Warrants are then listed for the reasons to support the claim with backing and rebuttals. However, the Rogerian model asks to weigh two options, lists strengths and weaknesses of both options, and gives a recommendation after an analysis.Examples of Argumentative Essay in Literature Example #1: Put a Little Science in Your Life (by Brian Greene)"When we consider the ubiquity of cellphones, iPods, personal computers and the Internet, it's easy to see how science (and the technology to which it leads) is woven into the fabric of our day-to-day activities. When we benefit from CT scanners, M.R.I. devices, pacemakers and arterial stents, we can immediately appreciate how science affects the quality of our lives. When we assess the state of the world, and identify looming challenges like climate change, global pandemics, security threats and diminishing resources, we don't hesitate in turning to science to gauge the problems and find solutions.And when we look at the wealth of opportunities hovering on the horizon—stem cells, genomic sequencing, personalized medicine, longevity research, nanoscience, brain-machine interface, quantum computers, space technology—we realize how crucial it is to cultivate a general public that can engage with scientific issues; there's simply no other way that as a society we will be prepared to make informed decisions on a range of issues that will shape the future."These two paragraphs present an argument about two scientific fields — digital products and biotechnology. It has also given full supporting details with names.Example #2: Boys Here, Girls There: Sure, If Equality's the Goal (by Karen Stabiner)"The first objections last week came from the National Organization for Women and the New York Civil Liberties Union, both of which opposed the opening of TYWLS in the fall of 1996. The two groups continue to insist—as though it were 1896 and they were arguing Plessy v. Ferguson—that separate can never be equal. I appreciate NOW's wariness of the Bush administration's endorsement of single-sex public schools, since I am of the generation that still considers the label "feminist" to be a compliment—and many feminists still fear that any public acknowledgment of differences between the sexes will hinder their fight for equality."This paragraph by Karen Stabiner presents an objection to the argument of separation between public schools. It has been fully supported with evidences of the court case.Example #3: The Flight from Conversation (by Sherry Turkle) "We've become accustomed to a new way of being "alone together." Technology-enabled, we are able to be with one another, and also elsewhere, connected to wherever we want to be. We want to customize our lives. We want to move in and out of where we are because the thing we value most is control over where we focus our attention. We have gotten used to the idea of being in a tribe of one, loyal to our own party."This is an argument by Sherry Turkle, beautifully presented it in the first person plural dialogues. However, it is clear that this is part of a greater argument instead of the essay.Function of Argumentative EssayAn argumentative essay presents both sides of an issue. However, it presents one side more positively or meticulously than the other one, so that readers could be swayed to the one the author intends. The major function of this type of essays is to present a case before the readers in a convincing manner, showing them the complete picture.

Discourse

Foucault presents possibly the best definition of discourse. He defines discourse as, "Systems of thoughts composed of ideas, attitudes, and courses of action, beliefs and practices that systematically construct the subjects and the worlds of which they speak." Originally, it has roots in the Latin language. The term assumes slightly different meanings in different contexts. In literature, discourse means speech or writing, normally longer than sentences, which deals with a certain subject formally. In other words, discourse is the presentation of language in its entirety, while performing an intellectual inquiry in a particular area or field, such as theological discourse or cultural discourse.General Classifications of DiscourseDiscourse can be classified into four main categories, namely:ExpositionThe main focus of this type of discourse is to make the audience aware about the topic of the discussion. Definitions and comparative analysis of different ideas and beliefs are examples of discourse exposition.NarrationNarration is a type of discourse that relies on stories, folklore or a drama as a medium of communication.Stage play, story, and folklore are narrative discourse examples.Description This type involves describing something in relation to the senses. Descriptive discourse enables the audience to develop a mental picture of what is being discussed. Descriptive parts of novel or essay are descriptive discourse examples.ArgumentThis type of discourse is based on valid logic and, through correct reasoning, tries to motivate the audience. Examples of argumentative discourse include lectures, essays, and prose.Examples of Discourse in LiteraturePoetic DiscoursePoetic discourse is a type of literary conversation which focuses on the expression of feelings, ideas, imaginations, events, and places through specific rhymes and rhythms. Poetic discourse makes use of common words in appealing ways to present feelings and emotions. The mechanism of poetic discourse involves certain steps starting from different sources, then entering the mental process, mental realization, and then finally into a finished product as poetry.Example #1: A Character (By William Wordsworth)"I marvel how Nature could ever find spaceFor so many strange contrasts in one human face:There's thought and no thought, and there's paleness and bloomAnd bustle and sluggishness, pleasure and gloom."Expressive DiscourseExpressive discourse does not involve the presentation of facts, or the motivating of others, but is rather a reflection of our emotions that form the foundation of our expressions. This is a form of basic or entry-level discourse, and is beneficial for beginners in the field of literature. It primarily deals with generating ideas with no concrete source. Examples include academic essays and diaries.Example #2: The Diary of Samuel Pepys (By Samuel Pepys, 1660)"We met very early at our office this morning to pick out the twenty-five ships which are to be first paid off. After that to Westminster and dined with Mr. Dalton at his office, where we had one great court dish, but our papers not being done we could [not] make an end of our business till Monday next. Mr. Dalton and I over the water to our landlord Vanly, with whom we agree as to Dalton ..."Transactional DiscourseThe basic aim in this kind of discourse is to convey the message in such a way that it is clearly understood without any confusion. Whatever is said has no ambiguity - everything is clear for the reader. Usually, this type of discourse is in active voice. Examples include instructions, guidelines, manuals, privacy policies, and patient instructions as written by doctors.Function of Discourse The role of discourse is hard to ignore in our daily intellectual pursuits, for it provides a basis to conduct a comparative analysis and frame our perceptions about different things. For instance, two competing discourses about the civil war in Syria today can be used to qualify the war as either "war against dictatorship," or "war against imperialism." On the other hand, it could be deemed as "war against Islam," or "war for humanity." Thus, both discourses provide a distinct style, vocabulary, and presentation, which are required to convey the respective ideas to a specific audience.According to Jacques Lucan and Ferdinand de Saussure, language (discourse) is the main force which works behind all kinds of human activities and changes in social fabric; whereas Modernists attribute discourse to development and progress. Another important function of discourse is to generate and preserve truth as argued by the Postmodernist theories.

Denotation

Denotation is generally defined as literal or dictionary meanings of a word in contrast to its connotative or associated meanings. Let us try to understand this term with the help of an example. If you search for the meaning of the word "dove" in a dictionary, you will see that its meaning is "a type of pigeon, a wild and domesticated bird having a heavy body and short legs." In literature, however, you frequently see "dove" used to mean a symbol of peace.Denotation and ConnotationIn literary works, we find it a common practice with writers to deviate from the dictionary meanings of words to create fresher ideas and images. Such deviations from the literal meanings are referred to as "figurative language," or "literary devices," e.g. metaphors, similes, personifications, hyperboles, understatements, paradoxes, and puns. Even in our daily conversation, we diverge from the dictionary meanings of words, preferring connotative or associated meanings of words in order to accurately convey our message.Below is a list of some common deviations from denotative meanings of words that we experience in our day-to-day life:Dog - suggests shamelessness or an ugly face.Dove - suggests peace or gentility.Home - suggests family, comfort, and security.Politician - suggests negative connotation of wickedness and insincerityPushy - suggests someone is loud-mouthed and irritating.Mom and Dad - when used instead of "mother and father" suggest loving parents.Short Examples of Denotation She recognized the lovely aroma of her mother's cooking. (Smell)Vegetables are an inexpensive (Cheap)Hanna's interest in interior decoration has turned into her leisure pursuit. (Hobby)Aunt Jolly lives in a hut deep down in the forest. (Cabin)I stopped for brunch at a diner situated in the bay area. (Café)His parents are conservationists. (Environmentalists)My old computer has died. (Venerable)In a stealthy and quiet way, Bob entered into his lawyer's chambers. (Cautious)The son was somewhat intimidated by father's assertive (Confident)Ben is an adventurous (Courageous)Emily moved around the shore and stopped to take rest. (Relax)The man is flocking together young sheep. (Lambs)Harry has a pet and keeps it in a cage. (tamed animal)Sara forgot her sweater at home and is cold during her walk. (Chilly)John returns to his home (Family)Denotation Examples in LiteratureExample #1: Mending Wall (By Robert Frost)"And on a day we meet to walk the lineAnd set the wall between us once again.We keep the wall between us as we go.To each the boulders that have fallen to each."In the above lines, the word "wall" is used to suggest a physical boundary, which is its denotative meaning, but it also implies the idea of an emotional barrier.Example #2: A Slumber Did My Spirit Seal (By William Wordsworth)"A slumber did my spirit seal;I had no human fears —She seemed a thing that could not feelThe touch of earthly years.No motion has she now, no force;She neither hears nor sees;Roll'd round in earth's diurnal courseWith rocks, and stones, and trees."Wordsworth makes a contrast between a living girl and a dead girl in the first and second stanzas respectively. We are familiar with the meanings of the words used in the last line of the second stanza: rock, stone, and tree. However, the poet uses them connotatively, where "rock" and "stone" imply cold and inanimate objects, and the tree suggests dirt and thus the burial of that dead girl.Example #3: As you Like It (By William Shakespeare) "All the world's a stage,And all the men and women merely players;They have their exits and their entrances,And one man in his time plays many parts, ..."Shakespeare moves away from the denotative meanings of words in the above lines, in order to give a symbolic sense to a few words. The phrase "a stage" symbolizes the world, the word "players" suggests human beings, and the word "parts" implies different stages of their lives.Example #4: Wild Asters (By Sara Teasdale)"In the spring, I asked the daisiesIf his words were true,And the clever, clear-eyed daisiesAlways knew.Now the fields are brown and barren,Bitter autumn blows,And of all the stupid astersNot one knows."Sara Teasdale develops a number of striking symbols by deviating from the denotative meanings of the words. In the above lines, "spring" and "daisies" are symbols of youth. "Brown and barren" is a symbol of transition from youth to old age. Finally, "bitter autumn" symbolizes death.Example #5: Richard Cory (By E. A. Robinson)"And he was always quietly arrayed,And he was always human when he talked ..."Good-morning," and he glittered when he walked.And he was rich — yes, richer than a king ...And Richard Cory, one calm summer night,Went home and put a bullet through his head."Here, the poet uses denotative language to emphasize the personality of Richard Cory, who was wealthy, indeed he was "richer than a king." He was well-educated, and a perfect celebrity - everyone in the town wished to be like him. He shines brightly in his speech and mannerisms, nevertheless, he kills himself in the end.Example #6: Nicomachean Ethics (By Aristotle)"[C]ontemplation is both the highest form of activity (since the intellect is the highest thing in us, and the objects that it apprehends are the highest things that can be known), and also it is the most continuous, because we are more capable of continuous contemplation than we are of any practical activity."In these lines, Aristotle explains the literal function of contemplation in the human mind. Also, he explains that contemplation is a human activity that is done continuously. He uses phrases and words that directly describe contemplation.Example #7: Fire and Ice (By Robert Frost)"Some say the world will end in fire,Some say in ice ...But if it had to perish twice,I think I know enough of hateTo say that for destruction ice ..."In the above lines, the poet has used a number of denotative meanings of words. Here, "some say" denotes a group of people, and "I know" represents personal experience. Then "end," "fire," "perish," and "destruction" denote destruction and death.Example #8: Moby Dick (By Herman Melville)"What the white whale was to Ahab, has been hinted; what, at times, he was to me, as yet remains unsaid. Aside from those more obvious considerations touching Moby Dick...It was the whiteness of the whale that above all things appalled me."Ishmael opens the above example by referencing the white whale, calling him "Moby Dick." Also, he specifies and refers to the white color of the whale, and using it in its literal meaning.Function of DenotationReaders are familiar with denotations of words but denotations are generally restricted meanings. Writers, therefore, deviate from the denotative meanings of words to create fresh ideas and images that add deeper levels of meanings to common and ordinary words. Readers find it convenient to grasp the connotative meanings of words because of the fact that they are familiar to their literal meanings.

Denouement

Denouement is derived from the French word denoue, which means "to untie." Denouement is a literary device that can be defined as the resolution of the issue of a complicated plot in fiction. The majority of examples of denouement show the resolution in the final part or chapter, often in an epilogue. Denouement is usually driven by the climax. In mystery novels, however, the climax and denouement might occur simultaneously. In most of the other forms of literature, it is merely the end of the story.Examples of Denouement in LiteratureDenouement is a significant part of a literary piece, because it resolves the conflicts of the story, as shown in the following denouement examples.Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)CAPULET:"O brother Montague, give me thy hand.This is my daughter's jointure, for no moreCan I demand..."MONTAGUE:"But I can give thee more,For I will raise her statue in pure gold,That whiles Verona by that name is known...As that of true and faithful Juliet..."CAPULET:"As rich shall Romeo's by his lady's lie,Poor sacrifices of our enmity..."PRINCE:"A glooming peace this morning with it brings.The sun, for sorrow, will not show his head..."The denouement occurs in the play when the Capulets and Montagues see their beloved children committing suicide at the tomb. The heads of the family realized that their bitter rivalry must end. Lord Capulet and Lord Montague agree to end their dispute to avoid further tragedy in the future.Example #2: The Great Gatsby (By F. Scott Fitzgerald)"'They're a rotten crowd,' I shouted across the lawn. 'You're worth the whole damn bunch put together...'"The denouement in The Great Gatsby happens when Nick decides to go back to Minnesota, to get away from the rich people engaged in all those things Nick thinks are part of the moral worthlessness in Gatsby's life. All the people in Gatsby's circle were unfaithful.Example #3: The Catcher in the Rye (By J. D. Salinger) "... That's all I'm going to tell about. I could probably tell you what I did after I went home, and how I got sick and all, and what school I'm supposed to go to next fall, after I get out of here, but I don't feel like it. I really don't. That stuff doesn't interest me too much right now... I mean how do you know what you're going to do till you do it? The answer is, you don't. I think I am, but how do I know? I swear it's a stupid question..."The denouement in this story occurs in the last part of the novel. Here, the character Holden is living in a psychiatric facility, from which he is recounting the story. He tells readers that, after the merry-go-round ride of Phoebe, he would go home to attend school and face his parents.Example #4: The Winter's Tale (By William Shakespeare)Gentleman:"One that gives out himself Prince Florizel/Son of Polixenes, with his princess, sheThe fairest I have yet beheld, desires access..."Leontes:"What with him? he comes notLike to his father's greatness: his approach..."Florizel:"Most royal sir, from thence; from him, whose daughterHis tears proclaim'd his, parting with her: thenceA prosperous south-wind friendly, we have cross'd..."Leontes:"My lord, Is this the daughter of a king? ... His tears proclaim'd his, parting with her: thence..."Leontes:"My lord, Is this the daughter of a king..."In this excerpt from The Winter's Tale, the denouement occurs when Polixenes chases Florizel and Perdita to Sicily. After the true identity of Paulina is discovered, Polixenes and Leontes make up, and both families become happy. Leontes also reunites with the family and finds Hermoin alive.Function of Denouement The denouement is a final resolution or clarification in a literary work. It is used in different types of storytelling: novels, plays, movies, etc. In fact, it wraps up the whole story, and usually comes after a huge climax. When a heart-racing climax has created anxiety and excitement, denouement provides the audience a chance to breathe a sigh of relief. It places everything in proper order, and allows the central theme or sentiments of the movie or novel to resonate. Denouement is very important, as it resolves the issues in the end. The whole story can be destroyed if the denouement is written poorly.

Logos

Derived from a Greek word, Logos means "logic." Logos is a literary device that can be described as a statement, sentence, or argument used to convince or persuade the targeted audience by employing reason or logic. In everyday life, arguments depend upon pathos and ethos besides logos. Let's take a look at logos examples in literature and debates. Classification of LogosBefore you learn what logos is, you must first understand its two categories as given below:Inductive reasoning - Inductive reasoning involves a piece of specific representative evidence or the case which is drawn towards a conclusion or generalization. However, inductive reasoning requires reliable and convincing evidence that is presented to support the point.Deductive reasoning - Deductive reasoning involves generalization at the initial stage and then moves on towards the specific case. The starting generalization must be based on reliable evidence to support it at the end.In some cases, both of these methods are used to convince the audience.Examples of Logos in Literature Example #1: Political Ideals (By Bertrand Russell)"The wage system has made people believe that what a man needs is work.This, of course, is absurd. What he needs is the goods produced bywork, and the less work involved in making a given amount of goods,the better ... But owing to our economic system ...where a better system wouldproduce only an increase of wages or a diminution in the hours of workwithout any corresponding diminution of wages."In this paragraph, Russell is presenting arguments for the unjust distribution of wealth and its consequences. He answers through logic and states that a reason for this injustice is due to evils in institutions. He deduces that capitalism and the wage system should be abolished to improve the economic system.Example #2: The Art of Rhetoric (By Aristotle)"All men are mortal.Socrates is a man.Therefore, Socrates is mortal."Aristotle is using syllogistic arguments here, where some of the arguments or assertions remain unstated. Since Socrates is a man; therefore, he is mortal; all men are mortal so. Eventually, they will die. This is the logic presented here.Example #3: Of Studies (By Francis Bacon) "Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man."This example is exact, precise, and compact with arguments, as well as a deduction or conclusion. At first, Bacon points out what reading, conference (discussion), and writing are, simultaneously giving the logic and reasoning to read, write, or conference.Example #4: Of Studies (By Francis Bacon)"Crafty men condemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them; for they teach not their own use; but that is wisdom without them, and above them, won by observation."This is also a perfect example of logos. Here, Bacon discusses the matter of theories versus skills. There comes a clash between reading and not reading. He argues that a reader is better than those who cling to what they already know. He uses the logic that reading is necessary because it improves skills.Example #5: Othello (By William Shakespeare)"Oh, beware, my lord, of jealousy!It is the green-eyed monster which doth mockThe meat it feeds on ...Who, certain of his fate, loves not his wronger,But, oh, what damnèd minutes tells he o'erWho dotes, yet doubts — suspects, yet soundly loves ...She did deceive her father, marrying you ...She loved them most ...I humbly do beseech you of your pardonFor too much loving you ..."In this excerpt, Iago convinces Othello with logic and reasoning and makes him doubtful that there is a secret relationship between Desdemona and Cassio.Logos Meaning and FunctionLogos is used when citing facts, in addition to statistical, literal, and historical analogies. It is something through which inner thoughts are presented logically, to persuade the audience. In society, rationality and logic are greatly valued, and this type of convincing approach is generally honored more than appeals made by a speaker or character to the audience. On the other hand, scientific reasoning and formal logic are perhaps not suitable for general audiences, as they are more appropriate for scientific professionals only.

Epiphany

Derived from the Greek word epiphaneia, epiphany means "appearance," or "manifestation." In literary terms, an epiphany is that moment in the story where a character achieves realization, awareness, or a feeling of knowledge, after which events are seen through the prism of this new light in the story. James Joyce, the great Irish writer, used this term in his writings to indicate a sudden eye-opener regarding the nature of a person or situation. He said that it is the moment in which "the soul of the commonest object ... seems to us radiant, and may be manifested through any chance, word, or gesture." He means to say that even insignificant things in our lives can suddenly inspire in us an awareness that can change our lives for good.A Common Example of EpiphanyLet us consider an epiphany of a smoker:I used to smoke a lot. Everyone let me know that it was bad for my health however, I didn't pay any notice. One day I saw my two-year-old baby trying to grab a stubbed-out cigarette from the ashtray. Seeing this, it suddenly dawned on me how terrible smoking was, and I stopped smoking.So, this sudden feeling of knowledge that brings to light what was so far hidden, and changes one's life, is called epiphany.Examples of Epiphany in Literature Let us analyze some epiphany examples from different genres of literature.Example #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell)Animal Farm, written by George Orwell, is an epiphany that uses animals on a farm to describe the overthrow of the last Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, and the Communist Revolution of Russia before WWI. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the revolution. It also describes how powerful people can change the ideology of a society. One of the cardinal rules on the farm is this:All animals are equal but a few are more equal than others.The animals on the farm represent different sections of Russian society after the revolution.For instance, the pigs represent those who came to power following the revolution; "Mr. Jones," the owner of the farm, represents the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II; while "Boxer" the horse, represents the laborer class. The use of Epiphany in the novel allows Orwell to make his position clear about the Russian Revolution and expose its evils.Example #2: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)William Shakespeare also makes use of an epiphany in his play Hamlet. It is when Hamlet, the hero, is on a ship sailing to England. Till then, he was over-burdened with thinking and planning a flawless revenge on his father's murderer, Claudius. Suddenly there is a flash of realization and he says:[T]here is a divinity that shapes our ends, rough-hew them how we will.He realizes that there is no wisdom for him in trying to inflict the perfect revenge on Claudius - he must take hold of the moment and go with the current.Example #3: Miss Brill (By Katherine Manfield) We find another example of epiphany in the short story Miss Brill, written by Katherine Manfield. Miss Brill, being delighted to be part of the season in the Jardins Publique, particularly on Sundays, prepares herself for the occasion on a chilly day. She wears her fur coat, and walks towards a band playing music in the park. She sees life everywhere around her. It pleases her to imagine that she is part of all that takes place. In a flash of epiphany, she recognizes that she and everyone else in the park are mere actors, acting out their roles. There was nothing important about that gathering of actors and she was alone despite being with a crowd.Function of EpiphanyThe purpose of epiphany in a novel or a short story is to point out a turning point for a character, or in the plot, in the near future. It may also be used to change the opinion of one character about other characters, events, and places after a sudden awareness of the situation. It may also be a sign of a conclusion in the story.

Moral

Derived from the Latin term "morālis," moral means a message conveyed by, or a lesson learned from, a story, a poem, or an event. It is not necessary that the author or the poet has clearly stated it. It can be left for the audiences or the learners to derive. However, at times, moral is clearly stated in the shape of a proverb. The moral to a story is a universal aspect of the majority of fictional literature that it not only entertains, but also it serves the purpose of instruction, information, and improvement of the audiences. The chorus in the classical drama, for example, commented upon the proceedings and drew out a message for the audience. The novels of Charles Dickens, on the other hand, address the drawbacks of the social and economic system of Victorian Britain, carrying morals of their own type, which are implicit.In children's literature, morals are exclusively introduced by the phrase, "The moral of the story is ..." Modern story telling does not employ these explicit techniques, but uses irony and other devices to convey it.Examples of Moral in LiteratureMostly, Aesop's fables are considered to have strong moral conclusions. However, almost all literary writings have some morals to be conveyed to readers. Literary works aimed at children are replete with moral lessons. They provide children with positive lessons and guidelines for the future. Maxims like "Be friends with whom you don't like," "Don't judge people by the way they look," and "Slow and steady wins the race" are normally the lessons found behind many stories.Example #1: The Fox and the Grapes (By Aesop)"Again and again he tried after the tempting morsel, but at last had to give it up, and walked away with his nose in the air, saying: 'I am sure they are sour.' "These are the closing lines taken from Aesop's The Fox and the Grapes. It is through the last statement that the fox expresses its dislike of grapes, which it had tried again and again to grasp. This particular story by Aesop discusses a general habit of the people who cannot admit their defeat. Instead, they pass on the blame to someone or something else. The same is the case with the fox in this story, who fails after several attempts.Example #2: Dr. Faustu (By Christopher Marlow)"My God, my God, look not so fierce on me!Alders and serpents let me breathe a while!Ugly hell, gape not: come not Lucifer:I'll burn my books: Ah Mephistophilis!"One can easily detect the horror and terror expressed by Dr. Faustus in his final soliloquy. His fall indicates that, in spite of being an educated person, he made a great mistake by selling his soul to the devil. His repentance from his misdeeds leads the reader to realize that the path of the devil is doomed. The story of Dr. Faustus symbolizes the eternal struggle between good and evil, and vice and virtue.Example #3: The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia (By Samuel Johnson) "I have here the world before me; I will review it at leisure: surely happiness is somewhere to be found ... Happiness must be something solid and permanent, without fear and without uncertainty."In his famous novel, Rasselas, Samuel Johnson narrates the story of a prince who escapes from the valley of happiness in search of eternal happiness, which he ultimately finds nowhere. And this is the moral lesson of this tale.Function of Moral During the period 1780 to 1830, morals were associated with the main purpose of literature, especially literature written for children. In the 18th century, the works by John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau focused their attention on children as the audience of literature. However, as it has been stated by E. M. Forster: every good story has a moral, and every bad story is a moral, now it is necessary to deduce the moral. This is because ultimately the aim of literature is to make the world a better place, which is impossible without teaching morals. Therefore, moral is necessary for a piece of literature, which then functions as the main gist of any literary piece.

Critique

Critique is a literary technique that means to critically evaluate a piece of literary work, or a political or philosophical theory in detail. A critique could be a critical essay, an article evaluating a literary piece, or a review. It may be just like a summary that identifies the central issue, raises questions, takes notice of theoretical and experimental approaches, and reviews the significance of the results. Apart from that, its purpose is to highlight both the shortcomings as well as strengths of a literary piece or a work of art. Moreover, critical evaluation or assessment requires sufficient knowledge about the subject matter. Examples of Critique in LiteratureExample #1: The Guardian (By Philip Hope-Wallace)In The Guardian, critic Philip Hope-Wallace has portrayed Beckett's play, Waiting for Godot, as "inexplicit and deliberately fatuous." He also claimed this play to have "bored some people acutely. [while] Others found it a witty and poetic conundrum." Godot would possibly be a God, and the dresses of tramps are like Chaplinesque zanies in a circus. Both speak futile cross talks like music hall exchanges. This play bored audience acutely, while others consider it as a poetic and witty conundrum. Finally, he calls the play a dramatic vacuum. It is without any plot, climax, denouement, beginning, middle and end.Example #2: The Washington Post (By The Washington Post)A famous writer, Jonathan Yardley, gives a complete analysis of F. Scott Fitzgerald's popular novel, The Great Gatsby in The Washington Post. He calls the novel an enormous achievement in Fitzgerald's career. It is his masterwork and seems that no other American novel could ever come close to its literary artistry.This novel is very popular, and its every passage is famous, thus there is no need to retrace its details and familiar background. Fitzgerald has written it with unusual subtlety and sustained that tone in the entire novel. In the end, he says that this novel is "the most beautiful, compelling and true in all of American literature." Then he says, "If from all of our country's books I could have only one, The Great Gatsby, would be it."Example #3: Hamlet: Poem Unlimited (By Harold Bloom) In his book, Hamlet: Poem Unlimited, Harold Bloom declares William Shakespeare's Hamlet as "unlimited," coming "of no genre," because its greatness "... competes only with the world's scriptures." This amazing significance cannot emerge from a work, which is about tendentious and politicized things.Bloom abandons the idea that Prince Hamlet's double shock of his father's death and his mother's second marriage has brought a drastic change in Hamlet. The truth, however, is that "Something in Hamlet dies before the play opens." In fact, the theme or central idea of this play is "Hamlet's consciousness of his own consciousness, unlimited yet at war with itself." Thus, the play is about awakening of self-awareness, and Hamlet fights with "his desire to come to an end of playacting."Example #4: The Daily Telegraph (By Victoria Lambert)Victoria Lambert, in The Daily Telegraph, writes her critical reviews on Jane Austen's novel, Pride and Prejudice. She describes the novel as surprisingly comforting as much as iconoclastic. It is a great story that challenges the people's perceptions, and also draws a line through their thoughts and female history.Certainly, there is an enjoyment of the Georgian grace, a world where we can solve problems by a ball invitation, a new gown, and scrumptious gossip. The social life at Hampshire Vicarage, its complex social mores, obsessions with money and class, its picnics and parities, draw the readers - especially females - to a point of obsession. The critics appreciate Austen's overall depiction of the way money rules a society. She also admits Austen's ability to describe the human heart in detail, setting her literary pulse racing.Function of Critique Critiques vary widely, ranging from giving reviews of books, as these reviews might determine whether a book is going to be popular or not, to rhetorical analysis of articles and pieces of artwork. Its advantage is that, despite negative criticism and reviews, many books win commercial success. Sometimes a critic serves as a scholarly detective, authenticating unknown books and unearthing master pieces. Thus, obscure scholarly skills could work as a most basic criticism, bringing literary pieces to public attention.Besides, a critique may antagonize the author. Many authors do not feel that literature needs investigators, and advocates are not happy when they hear that their works are imitative, incomplete, or have unintended meanings. However, most critiques are useful, as they help improve the works of authors.

Dactyl

Dactyl is a metrical foot, or a beat in a line, containing three syllables in which the first one is accented, followed by second and third unaccented syllables (accented/unaccented/unaccented) in quantitative meter, such as in the word "humanly." In dactyl, we put stress on the first syllable, and do not stress second and third syllables, try to say it loud: "HU-man-ly." Dactyl originates from the Greek word dáktylos, which means "finger," because it is like bones of human fingers, beginning from a central long knuckle, which is followed by two short bones. Opposite to AnapestDactyl is opposite to anapestic meter, as dactyl in a quantitative meter consists of a first stressed syllable, and then two unstressed syllables (stressed/unstressed/unstressed), such as a dactyl from Longfellow's poem Evangeline: "Loud from its rocky caverns, the deep-voiced neighboring ocean." However, anapest in a quantitative meter that contains first an unstressed syllable, followed by two stressed syllables (unstressed/stressed/stressed), such as William Cowper's anapestic line from his poem Verses Supposed to be Written by Alexander Selkirk, "I must finish my journey alone."Examples of Dactyl in Literature Example #1: The Charge of the Light Brigade (By Alfred Lord Tennyson)"Half a league, half a league,Half a league onward,All in the valley of DeathRode the six hundred.'Forward, the Light Brigade!Charge for the guns!' he said.Into the valley of DeathRode the six hundred."In this poem, Tennyson has used dactylic meter perfectly. Notice this dactylic pattern as one accented syllable, followed by two unaccented syllables. Dactylic syllables give rhythm and pause while reading, thus laying emphasis on certain words.Example #2: Evangeline (By Henry Wadsworth Longfellow)"THIS is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks,Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight ...Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-Pre ...Dikes, that the hands of the farmers had raised with labor incessant ...Leaped like the roe, when he hears in the woodland the voice of the huntsman? ...Darkened by shadows of earth, but reflecting an image of heaven? ...List to the mournful tradition, still sung by the pines of the forest ... "This is a very popular example of dactylic meter appearing in combination with spondaic meter. Look at the words shown in bold, with a stress pattern of one accented syllable followed by two unaccented syllables.Example #3: The Lost Leader (By Robert Browning) "Just for a handful of silver he left us,Just for a riband to stick in his coat—Found the one gift of which fortune bereft us,Lost all the others she lets us devote;They, with the gold to give, doled him out silver,So much was theirs who so little allowed:How all our copper had gone for his service!"Browning has used dactylic meter to create a great rhythmic effect. Most of the lines of the above verses contain four dactyls.Example #4: (Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking (By Walt Whitman)"Out of the cradle, endlessly rockingOut of the mockingbird's throat, the musical shuttleOut of the Ninth-month midnight ..."Whitman is using dactyl in the phrase, "Out of the ..." as a pulse riding throughout this poem, which is generating a starting point for each new line.Example #5: Higgledy Piggledy (By Ian Lancashire)"Higgledy piggledy,Bacon, lord Chancellor.Negligent, fell for the Paltrier vice.Bribery toppled him,BronchopneumoniaFinished him, testing somePoultry on ice."This is a perfect example of a double dactyl poem. It is constructed of two quatrains, each consisting of dactylic dimeter lines. Here, the first line is a nonsense phrase, and the second one is a proper name, while the sixth line is a single double-dactylic word. Double dactyl creates rhythm and humor in this poem.Function of DactylDactyl meter is rare in English poetry, as its prolong use has distorted the normal accent of words. Also, it gives the lines a jerky movement. The major purpose of dactylic rhythm is to create lilting movement and a break. Apart from this, it makes poems pleasing, as intrinsically it is delightful, and makes it more meaningful by using stressed and unstressed patterns. As far as the origin of its usage is concerned, Greek and Latin have introduced this metrical form in classical epic poetry for melody. However, later in the nineteenth century, it started appearing regularly after poets like Algernon Charles Swinburne and Robert Browning successfully used it.

Mood

In literature, mood is a literary element that evokes certain feelings or vibes in readers through words and descriptions. Usually, mood is referred to as the atmosphere of a literary piece, as it creates an emotional setting that surrounds the readers. Mood is developed in a literary piece through various methods, including setting, theme, tone, and diction. Let us see how writers use the afore-mentioned elements in their literary works to create a particular mood.Creating Mood through SettingSetting is the physical location in a piece of literature that provides background in which the events of the narrative take place. A particular setting not only provides support to the contents of the story, but also sets the mood of the readers. Let us analyze a few examples of mood developed using a setting:Example #1: Pickwick Papers (By Charles Dickens)Charles Dickens creates a calm and peaceful mood in his novel Pickwick Papers:"The river, reflecting the clear blue of the sky, glistened and sparkled as it flowed noiselessly on."The depiction of idyllic scenery imparts a serene and non-violent mood to the readers.Example #2: Wuthering Heights (By Emily Bronte)Emily Bronte, in Wuthering Heights, creates two contrasting moods through two contrasting settings. The events of the narrative takes place in two neighboring houses: Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange. A depressing mood is created whenever Wuthering Heights is described. For example, in chapter 12 the narrator says:"There was no moon, and everything beneath lay in misty darkness: not a light gleamed from any house, far or near all had been extinguished long ago: and those at Wuthering Heights were never visible..."On the contrary, the description of Thrushcross Grange creates a calm and peaceful mood:"Gimmerton chapel bells were still ringing; and the full, mellow flow of the beck in the valley came soothingly on the ear. It was a sweet substitute for the yet absent murmur of the summer foliage, which drowned that music about the Grange when the trees were in leaf."The contrast presented in the settings also helps in the development of the different characters. The people from Wuthering Heights are unsophisticated, while those from Thrushcross Grange are refined.Creating Mood through Tone The manner in which a writer approaches this theme and subject is called the tone. The readers always rely on the writer's point of view of the events taking place in a story. They observe the story through his eyes. They feel the way the writer feels about the events taking place and the description provided. Therefore, the attitude of the writer evokes feelings and emotions in the readers.Example #3: The Road Not Taken (By Robert Frost) For instance, see how Robert Frost, in his poem The Road Not Taken, creates a gloomy feeling through his tone:"I shall be telling this with a sighSomewhere ages and ages hence:Two roads diverged in a wood, and I,I took the one less traveled by,And that has made all the difference."Frost informs us about his past with a "sigh" that gives the above lines an unhappy tone and thus evokes an unhappy mood. An unhappy mood is created because the poet convinces us that he regrets a choice he made in the past.Creating Mood through DictionDiction is the choice of words a writer uses. Diction or choice of words conveys deep feelings, and depicts the events, places, and characters in a literary work in specific colors, having an effect on the way the readers feel about them.Example #4: Gulliver's Travel (By Jonathon Swift)The following lines from Jonathon Swift's Gulliver's Travels is one of the great mood examples created using diction:"And being no stranger to the art of war, I have him a description of cannons, culverins, muskets, carabines, pistols, bullets, powder, swords, bayonets, battles, sieges, retreats, attacks, undermines, countermines, bombardments, sea-fights..."In order to create feelings of disgust in readers, for the destructive consequences of war, the writer chooses words that are unmelodious, harsh, and jarring. The diction in the above passage corresponds with the subject matter.Function of MoodMood helps in creating an atmosphere in a literary work by means of setting, theme, diction, and tone. It evokes various emotional responses in readers, and thus ensures their emotional attachment to the literary piece they read. Once the readers are emotionally stirred, they fully comprehend the message that the writer tries to convey to them.

Poetic Justice

In literature, poetic justice is an ideal form of justice, in which the good characters are rewarded and the bad characters are punished, by an ironic twist of fate. It is a strong literary view that all forms of literature must convey moral lessons. Therefore, writers employ poetic justice to conform to moral principles. For instance, if a character in a novel is malicious and without compassion in the novel, he is seen to have gone beyond improvement. Then, the principles of morality demand his character to experience a twist in his fate and be punished. Similarly, the characters who have suffered at his hand must be rewarded at the same time.Examples of Poetic Justice in LiteratureLet us analyze a few examples of poetic justice in Literature:Example #1: King Lear (By William Shakespeare)In Shakespeare's King Lear we see the evil characters - Goneril, Regan, Oswald, and Edmund - thrive throughout the play. The good characters - Lear, Gloucester, Kent, Cordelia, and Edgar - suffer long and hard. We see the good characters turn to gods, but they are rarely answered. Lear, in Act 2, Scene 4 calls upon heaven in a most pitiful manner: "... O heavens!If you do love old men, if your sweet swayShow obedience, if you yourselves are old,Make it your cause. Send down, and take my part!"Lear loses his kingdom by the conspiracies of his daughters Goneril and Regan, who are supported by Edmund. At Dover, Edmund-led English troops defeat the Cordelia-led French troops, and Cordelia and Lear are imprisoned.Cordelia is executed in the prison, and Lear dies of grief at his daughter's death. Despite all the suffering that good undergoes, the evil is punished. Goneril poisons her sister Regan due to jealousy over Edmund. Later, she kills herself when her disloyalty is exposed to Albany. In a climactic scene, Edgar kills Edmund. In Act 5, Scene 3 he says:"My name is Edgar, and thy father's son.The gods are just, and of our pleasant vicesMake instruments to plague us.The dark and vicious place where thee he gotCost him his eyes."Here, "The gods are just" because they punish the evil for their evil actions.Example #2: Oliver Twist (By Charles Dickens)We see the role of poetic justice in the cruel character Mr. Bumble, in Charles Dickens' Oliver Twist. Mr. Bumble was a beadle in the town where Oliver was born - in charge of the orphanage and other charitable institutions in the town. He is a sadist and enjoys torturing the poor orphans.Bumble marries Mrs. Corney for money, and becomes master of her workhouse. Her,e his fate takes a twist as he loses his post as a beadle, and his new wife does not allow him to become a master of her workhouse. She beats him and humiliates him, as he himself had done to the poor orphans. Right at the end of the novel, we come to know that both Mr. and Mrs. Bumble end up being so poor that they live in the same workhouse that they once owned.Example #3: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles) A classic example of poetic justice is found in the Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex, by Sophocles. In the play, Oedipus has committed the crime of defying gods by trying to escape his fate. Therefore, he left the kingdom he lived in, and went to the new kingdom of Thebes. He killed the king of the city after a quarrel, and married the queen.Later, we learn that the prophecy turned out true, as the man he killed turned out to be his father, and the queen his own mother. The Greek believed their destinies were predetermined - shaped by the gods and goddesses. Whosoever tried to defy them, committed a sin and deserved punishment.Function of Poetic Justice Generally, the purpose of poetic justice in literature is to adhere by the universal code of morality, in that virtue triumphs vice. The idea of justice in literary texts manifests the moral principle that virtue deserves a reward, and vices earn punishment.In addition, readers often identify with the good characters. They feel emotionally attached to them, and feel for them when they suffer at the hands of the wicked characters. Naturally, readers want the good characters to triumph and be rewarded; but they equally wish the bad characters to be penalized for their evilness. Thus, poetic justice offers contentment and resolution.

Ethos

In rhetoric, ethos represents credibility, or an ethical appeal, which involves persuasion by the character involved. Origin of EthosThe term has its roots in Aristotle's "ingredients of persuasion," or "appeals." He divides means of persuasion into three distinct categories: ethos, pathos, and logos. He says in his treatise On Rhetoric:"Of the modes of persuasion furnished by the spoken word there are three kinds. [...] Persuasion is achieved by the speaker's personal character when the speech is so spoken as to make us think him credible."It is a means of convincing others of the character or credibility of the persuader. It is natural for us to accept the credibility of people whom we hold in reverence.In an argument, it is of utmost value for a speaker or a writer to impress upon listeners and readers the idea that is worth listening to. In other words, the credibility of a speaker or a writer relies on his or her authority on the subject matter, as well as on how much he or she is liked and deemed worthy of respect.Ethos and Ad Hominem Argument In an attempt to confirm his credibility, a writer or speaker will make use of a typical type of argument called an "ad hominem argument." It is an argument "against the man," which undermines the ethos of a speaker or a writer in opposition. It is a strategy in which a speaker or a writer attacks the character or personality of an opponent speaker or writer, rather than criticizing the matter of his or her point of view. Such an argument, however, is generally thought to be a logical fallacy. Nevertheless, it can prove to be exceptionally successful and is fairly common in politics.Examples of Ethos in LiteratureClassification of ethos may be based on its position, such as the following examples of ethos.Example #1:Choice of words can confirm ethos with customers:"Our expertise in roofing contracting is evidenced, not only by our 100 years in the business and our staff of qualified technicians, but in the decades of satisfied customers who have come to expect nothing but the best.The advertisers try to build up their credibility with their customers by repeatedly mentioning the experience they have in the field, and the technical expertise of their staff.Example #2:"Doctors all over the world recommend this type of treatment."People tend to believe the opinions of doctors in the matter of medical treatments.Example #3: "John is a forensics and ballistics expert, working for the federal government for many years. If anyone's qualified to determine the murder weapon, it's him."Here, John is put forth as the most qualified person to determine the murder weapon - based on his ethos in working for the federal government as a forensic and ballistics expert.Example #4:"If his years as a soldier taught him anything, it's that caution is the best policy in this sort of situation."A soldier's opinion is more credible than an ordinary man's opinion in violent situations.Example #5:"My three decades of experience in public service, my tireless commitment to the people of this community, and my willingness to reach across the aisle and cooperate with the opposition, make me the ideal candidate for your mayor."The public can easily be persuaded by giving them some knowledge about a candidate's past experience, past actions, and preferred policies.Example #6:Ethos examples in TV ads are not only expressed in words. For instance, in a commercial for toothpaste, an actor puts on a white lab coat and talks about how that particular toothpaste is good for teeth. By putting on a white lab coat, an actor looks like a doctor, and thus gains credibility as people consider a doctor's remarks to be more credible than an actor's.Function of EthosThe above explanations and examples of ethos reveal the following facts about this device:Ethos confirms the credibility of a writer or a speaker, and thus they become trustworthy in the eyes of listeners and readers who, as a result are persuaded by the arguments.Ethos of a speaker or a writer is created largely by the choice of words he or she chooses to convince listeners or readers.Being an expert on the subject matter determines his or her ethos.

Non Sequitur

Non sequitur is a literary device that includes statements, sayings, and conclusions that do not follow the fundamental principles of logic and reason. They are frequently used in theater and comedies to create comedic effect. In fact, non sequitur is a Latin phrase that means "it doesn't follow." Here, non means "not," and sequitur means "to follow." It takes place when a difference is created between the principle idea and the conclusion, which finally leads to a fallacy. In conversation, non sequitur is something that is said, which seems quite absurd - to the point of confusion due to lack of proper meanings. It is sometimes taken as postulation, which means the statement might not be true. For instance:Maria drives a car. She must be a wealthy person.David eats broccoli. David should love to eat meat.The sentences do not follow a proper sequence in non sequitur, and words do not give the same meaning as readers suppose them to do.Types of Non SequiturOne can find non sequitur examples in everyday speech and in different fields of life, such as in the practice of law where non sequitur in arguments is regularly used. It can be classified into following six categories:Non sequitur in everyday speech: "Business is business, and a cup of tea is a cup of tea."Fallacy of the undistributed middle: "All humans have bones. Crocodiles have bones. Therefore, crocodiles are humans."Affirming the consequent: "If Charles is right, then Diana is right. As Diana is right, therefore, Charles is right."Denying the antecedent: "If I am Indian, then I am Asian. I am not Indian. Therefore, I am not Asian."Affirming a disjunct: "Adam is right or Eve is right. Adam is right, therefore Eve is not right."Denying a conjunct: "It is not that both Horse and Cow is true. Cow is not true. Therefore, Horse is true."Examples of Non Sequitur in Literature The best examples of non sequitur can be observed in the Theatre of the Absurd.Example #1: Waiting for Godot (By Samuel Beckett)VLADIMIR: "Consult his family..."ESTRAGON: (anxious) "And we?"ESTRAGON: "And why would he shout?"VLADIMIR: "At his horse. Silence."ESTRAGON: (violently) "I'm hungry!"VLADIMIR: "Do you want a carrot..."VLADIMIR: "I might have some turnips..."VLADIMIR: "Oh pardon! I could have sworn it was a carrot..."ESTRAGON: (Chewing) "I asked you a question."VLADIMIR: "Ah."ESTRAGON: "Did you reply?"VLADIMIR: "How's the carrot?"ESTRAGON: "It's a carrot."Here we can clearly see the use of non sequiturs, where Estragon persistently asks a question, but Vladimir does not bother to answer.Example #2: Bald Soprano (By Eugene Ionesco)Mrs. Smith:"There, it's nine o' clock; we have drunk the soup, and eaten the fish and chips and the English salad ... That's because we live in the suburbs of London and because our name is smith."Mr. Smith: (continues to read and clicks his tongue)"Potatoes are very good, fried in fat: the salad oil was not rancid ... However, I prefer not to tell them that their oil is bad."Mr. Smith: (continues to read and clicks his tongue)"However, the oil from the grocer at the corner is till the best."Mr. Smith: (continues to read and clicks his tongue)In this excerpt, we can notice the strong use of non sequitur, where Mrs. Smith is talking to Mr. Smith, and he does not respond at all as it is quite absurd.Function of Non SequiturNon sequitur is produced inadvertently due to some confusion, and even sometimes deliberately to confound the audience, in order to point out the confusion existing in the situation or society at large. However, it is often used in order to change the subject of the conversation, and give a humorous touch by jumping to a conclusion abruptly, without following the fundamental principles of conversation.Similarly, as a literary device it is used in the Theater of the Absurd, and in surreal absurdist comedies. In theater, there are characters that give one non sequitur after another and move away, to provide comedic effect. Since the audience cannot foresee what the next statement will be, they merely laugh at it.

Antagonist

In literature, an antagonist is a character, or a group of characters, which stands in opposition to the protagonist, which is the main character. The term "antagonist" comes from the Greek word antagonistēs, which means "opponent," "competitor," or "rival." It is common to refer to an antagonist as a villain (the bad guy), against whom a hero (the good guy) fights in order to save himself or others. In some cases, an antagonist may exist within the protagonist that causes an inner conflict or a moral conflict inside his mind. This inner conflict is a major theme of many literary works, such as Doctor Faustus, by Christopher Marlowe, Hamlet, by William Shakespeare, and A Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man, by James Joyce. Generally, an antagonist appears as a foil to the main character, embodying qualities that are in contrast with the qualities of the main character.Examples of Antagonist in LiteratureExample #1: Antigone (By Sophocles)A classical example of an antagonist is that of King Creon in Sophocles' tragedy Antigone. Here, the function of the antagonist is to obstruct the main character's progress, through evil plots and actions. Antigone, the protagonist, struggles against King Creon, the antagonist, in her effort to give her brother a respectable burial. Through his evil designs, Creon tries to hamper her in this attempt by announcing that her brother was a traitor, and decreeing that "he must be left to the elements." This protagonist-antagonist conflict becomes the theme of this tragedy.Example #2: Othello (By William Shakespeare)Another example of an antagonist is the character of Iago in Shakespeare's Othello. Iago stands as one of the most notorious villains of all time, having spent all of his time plotting against Othello, the protagonist, and his wife Desdemona. Through his evil schemes, Iago convinces Othello that his wife has been cheating on him, and even convinces him to kill his own wife despite her being faithful to him. The thing that separates Iago from other antagonists is that we do not really know why he wants to destroy Othello.Example #3: Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (By Robert Louis Stevenson) In his novel Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Robert Louis Stevenson explores the theme of doppelganger in which Hyde is not only an evil double of the honorable Dr. Jekyll, but his antagonist. Jekyll creates Hyde by a series of scientific experiments in order to prove his statement:"Man is not truly one, but truly two."He means that a human soul is a mixture of evil and good. In other words, every man's antagonist exists within himself. Hyde is the manifestation of the evil that existed in the honorable Dr. Jekyll. Well-known as a respectable Victorian gentleman, Jekyll could never have fulfilled his evil desires. He separated his "evil-self" and gave him a separate identity, thus inventing his own antagonist who, as a result, brings his downfall.Example #4: To Kill a Mocking Bird (By Harper Lee)Bob Ewell is a malicious antagonist in Harper Lee's To Kill a Mocking Bird. Being convinced that Mayella may have been guilty of committing a crime, Ewell is bent on making sure that someone else gets the punishment. Ewell keeps on following Atticus, Judge Taylor, and Helen Robinson - even after the case is finished - and goes to the extent that he almost kills the Finch kids. In defense of Boo over the killing of Bob Ewell, Heck Tate said:"To my way of thinkin', Mr Finch, taking the one man who's done you and this town a great favour an' draggin' him with his shy ways into the limelight - to me, that's a sin. It's a sin and I'm not about to have it on my head. If it was any other man, it'd be different. But not this man, Mr. Finch."Function of Antagonist Conflict is a basic element of any plot. The presence of an antagonist alongside a protagonist is vital for the typical formula of a plot. The antagonist opposes the protagonist in his endeavors, and thus the conflict ensues. The protagonist struggles against the antagonist, taking the plot to a climax. Later, the conflict is resolved with the defeat of the antagonist; or, as in tragedies, with the downfall of the protagonist.

Octave

Octave has been derived from the Latin word octāva, which means "eighth part." It is a verse form that contains eight lines, which usually appear in an iambic pentameter. In simple words, it can be any stanza in a poem that has eight lines and follows a rhymed or unrhymed meter. Types of OctaveCanzonettaEach stanza of this verse form follows rhyme scheme of a, b, a, b, c, d, c, D. or a, b, a, b, c, b, c, B. the last line may repeat any meter.CavatinaIt appears in quatrains with uneven couplets and ends with a declamatory rhyming couplet. It follows alternating iambic pentameter and iambic dimeter lines. The rhyme scheme is: xaxa xbxb xcxc, where x is unrhymed.Ottava RimaThis form of octave contains 8 lines, which usually appear in iambic pentameter pattern. Each stanza contains three alternate rhyming lines with one double rhyme. It follows rhyme scheme of a-b-a-b-a-b-c-c.Sicilian OctaveThis verse form contains eight lines with 11 syllables, called hendecasyllable in Italian. It follows the rhyme scheme of a-b-a-b-a-b-a-b.Italian or Petrarchan OctaveInitially, it did not follow any set rhyming patter; however, later on it followed iambic pentameter with rhyme scheme of a-b-b-a-a-b-b-a.Hymnal and Common OctaveIt follows rhyming pattern a-b-c-b-a-b-c-b. The first one uses iambic tetrameter and the second one uses iambic trimeter.OctaveSometimes it is in the form of free or blank verse or unusual pattern. However, the most common rhyming pattern for this verse form is a-b-b-a-a-b-b-a.HuitainHuitain consists of 8 or 10 syllables with each line having rhyming pattern of a-b-a-b-b-c-b-c or a-b-a-b-a-c-a-cSicilian OctaveIt does not have a set form, but commonly follows rhyming pattern of a-b-a-b-a-b-a-b.Strambotto TuscanoIt follows rhyme scheme of a-b-a-b-a-b-c-c. Each line contains 11 syllables.Strambotto SicilianoIt uses a rhyming pattern a-b-a-b-a-b-a-b. There are 11 syllables in each line.Strambotto RomagnuoloIt uses rhyme scheme of a-b-a-b-c-c-d-d with 11 syllables in each line.Unwreathed OctaveIt also uses double rhymes with external rhyme as b-a-b-d-c-d-c and Internal rhyme a-b-a-c-d-c-x. There is no set meter.Wreathed OctaveIt also has double rhymes with external rhyme as a-b-a-b-c-d-c-d and internal rhyme follows the pattern of x-a-b-a-d-c-d-c.Examples of Octave in Literature Example #1: The New Colossus (By Emma Lazarus)'Not like the brazen giant of Greek fame,With conquering limbs astride from land to land;Here at our sea-washed, sunset gates shall standA mighty woman with a torch, whose flame...The air-bridged harbor that twin cities frame.This is an example of Petrarchan Octave, which follows the rhyme scheme of a-b-b-a-a-b-b-a. It is the first part of Petrarchan or Italian sonnet.Example #2: Of the Gentle Heart (by Guido Guinicelli)Within the gentle heart Love shelters himAs birds within the green shade of the grove.Before the gentle heart, in nature's scheme,Love was not, nor the gentle heart ere Love...And Love has his effect in gentleness.This stanza presents an example of Canzonetta, a verse form that uses rhyming pattern of a, b, a, b, c, d, c, D.Example #3: Filiocola (by Giovanni Boccaccio) Qui, d'Atropos il colpo ricevuto,giace di Roma Giulia Topazia,dell'alto sangue di Cesare argutodiscesa, bella e piena d'ogni grazia...Dio biasimar che fè sí gran fallazia.Boccaccio has used this 8-line verse Sicilian Octave in his earlier poem Filiocola. This form follows rhyme scheme of a-b-a-b-a-b-a-b.Example #4: Sonnet 16 (by John Milton)When I consider how my light is spentEre half my days in this dark world and wide,Lodg'd with me useless, though my soul more bent..."Doth God exact day-labour, light denied?"I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent...This is an example of octave, which is the first part of Italian sonnet that ends with a contrasting sestet. It commonly uses a metrical pattern of iambic pentameter, 5 iambs in each line, which is shown as underlined in the second last line.Function of OctaveAn octave serves as a musical interval or plays the role of a short distance between two musical notes. In fact, it is a distance between two notes with similar letter names. In poetry, it represents eight lines of a poem, often the first part of a sonnet, where it poses questions, while the second part, sestet, answers them. To put it in simple words, an octave provides a dilemma or a problem in the first part, which, sestet, as the second part resolves.

Paraphrase

Often when we hear news stories and watch television shows, we want to tell our families, friends, and colleagues about what, how, and why something happened. In fact, we recount the story, its main characters, and events in our own words. This technique is called paraphrasing, which is to express an idea or somebody's message in our own words, by maintaining the meaning of the original material. Paraphrase is a Greek word, paraphrasis, which means "to tell in other words." Simply, it is to restate a statement in different words than the original text, while keeping the meaning and sense of the original source the same. Paraphrase and SummaryBoth summarizing and paraphrasing use similar actions by involving almost the same processes. However, their objectives are different. Summary aims at condensing the original source into a shorter form. Paraphrase has no concern with length, but is a rewording or restating or the original source in different words, keeping the length or word count almost the same.Examples of Paraphrase in Literature Example #1: Romeo & Juliet (By Robert Burns)"But soft, what light through yonder window breaks?It is the east, and Juliet is the sun.Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon,Who is already sick and pale with grief,That thou, her maid, art far more fair than she ...The brightness of her cheek would shame those starsAs daylight doth a lamp; her eye in heavenWould through the airy region stream so brightThat birds would sing and think it were not night."Paraphrase: But please wait and see the light from that window. It is the east, and my love Juliet is the sun. Come up beautiful sun, kill the jealous moon that is already sick and pale due to grief, as Juliet is more beautiful than the moon ... The brightness of Juliet's cheeks would surpass the brightness of stars, like the sun's light outshines the light of a lamp. If her eyes were in the sky, they would be so bright through the spaces that birds might start singing, considering it was day light.Example #2: The Sun Rising (By John Donne)"Busy old fool, unruly sun,Why dost thou thus,Through windows and through curtains call on us?...Shine here to us, and thou art everywhere;This bed thy center is, these walls, thy sphere."Paraphrase: You nosy old stupid busybody! The sun, you obey no normal rules - why are you waking us up like this, interfering with our personal life by entering through the windows and curtains? ... Go ahead and shine on us - while doing so you will shine everywhere. This bed is the center of the entire universe, around which you revolve, and the walls of our room are like a sphere, which holds you in the heavens.Example #3: Pride & Prejudice (By Jane Austen) "It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife."Paraphrase: Everyone agrees on this point, that a prosperous man needs to have a wife.Example #4: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare)"Whence is that knocking?—How is't with me, when every noise appals me?What hands are here! Ha, they pluck out mine eyes.Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this bloodClean from my hand? No, this my hand will ratherThe multitudinous seas incarnadine,Making the green one red."Paraphrase: Where is this knocking coming from? Why does every noise frighten me? Whose hands are these plucking out my eyes? Will the ocean's water wash the blood from my hands? No, instead these hands will change the color of the water from green to red.Function of ParaphraseThe paraphrasing technique allows writers to change the original text, so that it does not look the same, yet without changing its meaning. Effective paraphrasing could help avoid the risk of plagiarism. There are many functions of this literary technique; first, it helps the readers to understand what they have read, especially when the syntax and diction of a writer look foreign and complex to the reader. Secondly, it could direct the attention of the reader toward the tone of the text and its significant details. Finally, since it clears up the meaning of the text, it helps readers to generate different questions from the paraphrasing text, such as when, what, and why something occurred.

Omniscient

Omniscient is a literary technique of writing a narrative in third person, in which the narrator knows the feelings and thoughts of every character in the story. Through omniscient narrative, the author brings an entire world of his characters to life, and moves from character to character, allowing different voices to interpret the events, and maintaining omniscient form — that is keeping a distance. Omniscient narrative tells the story of every character by demonstrating that only the narrator possesses information. Types of OmniscientOmniscient has two basic types:Omniscient Point of View - When a narrator has knowledge about all the characters in a narrative, it is an omniscient, or all-knowing, point of view.Limited Omniscient Point of View - In limited omniscient point of view, a narrator has limited knowledge of just one character, leaving other major or minor characters.Examples of Omniscient in Literature Example #1: The Scarlet Letter (By Nathaniel Hawthorne)The narrator in Nathaniel Hawthorne's novel, The Scarlet Letter, is an omniscient one, who scrutinizes the characters, and narrates the story in a way that shows the readers that he has more knowledge about the characters than they have about themselves. Though the narrator is an omniscient one, he is also a subjective narrator, meaning the readers form their own opinions about the things that take place.Example #2: Da Vinci Code (By Dan Brown)Dan Brown, in his novel Da Vinci Code, uses omniscient narrative, and employs several characters to speak in front of the audience, demonstrating what each character thinks and sees. Also the narrator provides information about background and related knowledge that characters are unaware of.Example #3: Little Women (By Louisa May Alcott) "Margaret, the eldest of the four, was sixteen, and very pretty, being plump and fair, with large eyes, plenty of soft brown hair, a sweet mouth, and white hands, of which she was rather vain. Fifteen-year-old Jo was very tall, thin, and brown, and reminded one of a colt ... Elizabeth, or Beth, as everyone called her, was a rosy, smooth-haired, bright-eyed girl of thirteen, with a shy manner, a timid voice, and a peaceful expression, which was seldom disturbed ... "Alcott uses an omniscient narrator, as we hear a disembodied voice knowing everyone's feelings and thoughts, exploring all characters from inside and out. Here, the narrator gives a description of the March sisters.Example #4: Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (By J.K. Rowling)"Harry had taken up his place at wizard school, where he and his scar were famous ... but now the school year was over, and he was back with the Dursleys for the summer, back to being treated like a dog that had rolled in something smelly ... The Dursleys hadn't even remembered that today happened to be Harry's twelfth birthday. Of course, his hopes hadn't been high?"Rowling employs omniscient limited narrator voice, in which readers see what Harry observes, and know what he feels and thinks. They are, however, unable to follow what the Dursleys feel or think about Harry.Example #5: The Jilting of Granny Weatherall (By Katherine Anne Porter)Another perfect example of omniscient limited voice is Katherine Anne Porter's short story The Jilting of Granny Weatherall. In this narrative, readers follow the main character very closely. They know the feelings and thoughts of Granny Weatherall. Porter begins this novel by showing Granny lying sick on the bed. Readers proceed through her perspective.Function of OmniscientThe purpose of using omniscient technique is to allow the audience to know everything about the characters. This is how they can gain an insight into characters' minds, and create a bond with them. Readers also see and observe the responses of multiple characters, which helps them understand the plot of the narrative.It also allows authors to make use of multiple voices in a story. By experiencing a narrative through multiple voices, readers can look into the depths of the story. In addition, readers can have an objective interpretation of the characters and events, in contrast to more personal or subjective interpretations. Finally, an omniscient narrator allows for a better storytelling, as it involves multiple characters, and several plot lines with different interpretations of the same event. Thus, a story could be more interesting when the plot moves from character to character.

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia, pronounced on-uh-mat-uh-pee-uh, is defined as a word which imitates the natural sounds of a thing. It creates a sound effect that mimics the thing described, making the description more expressive and interesting. For instance, saying, "The gushing stream flows in the forest" is a more meaningful description than just saying, "The stream flows in the forest." The reader is drawn to hear the sound of a "gushing stream," which makes the expression more effective.In addition to the sounds they represent, many onomatopoeic words have developed meanings of their own. For example, the word "whisper" not only represents the wispy or breathy sound of people talking quietly, but also describes the action of people talking quietly.Common Examples of OnomatopoeiaThe buzzing bee flew away.The sack fell into the river with a splash.The books fell on the table with a loud thump.He looked at the roaringThe rustling leaves kept me awake.The different sounds of animals are also considered as examples of onomatopoeia. You will recognize the following sounds easily:MeowMooNeighTweetOinkBaaGroups of Onomatopoeic Words Onomatopoeic words come in combinations, as they reflect different sounds of a single object. For example, a group of words reflecting different sounds of water are: plop, splash, gush, sprinkle, drizzle, and drip.Similarly, words like growl, giggle, grunt, murmur, blurt, and chatter denote different kinds of human voice sounds.Moreover, we can identify a group of words related to different sounds of wind, such as swish, swoosh, whiff, whoosh, whizz, and whisper.Examples of Onomatopoeia in LiteratureOnomatopoeia is frequently employed in literature. We notice, in the following examples, the use of onomatopoeia gives rhythm to the texts. This makes the descriptions livelier and more interesting, appealing directly to the senses of the reader.Below, a few Onomatopoeia examples are highlighted in bold letters:Example #1: Come Down, O Maid (By Alfred Lord Tennyson)"The moan of doves in immemorial elms,And murmuring of innumerable bees..."Example #2: The Tempest (By William Shakespeare)"Hark, hark!Bow-wow.The watch-dogs bark!Bow-wow.Hark, hark! I hearThe strain of strutting chanticleerCry, 'cock-a-diddle-dow!'"Example #3: For Whom the Bell Tolls (By Ernest Hemingway) "He saw nothing and heard nothing but he could feel his heart pounding and then he heard the clack on stone and the leaping, dropping clicks of a small rock falling."Example #4: The Marvelous Toy (By Tom Paxton)"It went zip when it moved and bop when it stopped,And whirr when it stood still.I never knew just what it was and I guess I never will."Example #5: Get Me to the Church on Time (By Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe)"I'm getting married in the morning!Ding dong! the bells are gonna chime."Onomatopoeia and PhanopoeiaOnomatopoeia, in its more complicated use, takes the form of phanopoeia. Phanopoeia is a form of onomatopoeia that describes the sense of things, rather than their natural sounds. D. H. Lawrence, in his poem Snake, illustrates the use of this form:"He reached down from a fissure in the earth-wall in the gloomAnd trailed his yellow-brown slackness soft-bellied down, over theedge of the stone troughAnd rested his throat upon the stone bottom,And where the water had dripped from the tap, in a small clearnessHe sipped with his straight mouth..."The rhythm and length of the above lines, along with the use of "hissing" sounds, create a picture of a snake in the minds of the readers.Function of OnomatopoeiaGenerally, words are used to tell what is happening. Onomatopoeia, on the other hand, helps readers to hear the sounds of the words they reflect. Hence, the reader cannot help but enter the world created by the poet with the aid of these words. The beauty of onomatopoeic words lies in the fact that they are bound to have an effect on the readers' senses, whether that effect is understood or not. Moreover, a simple plain expression does not have the same emphatic effect that conveys an idea powerfully to the readers. The use of onomatopoeic words helps create emphasis.

Legend

Originated from Latin legendus, legend means "something which ought to be read." According to J. A. Cuddon, a legend is "a story or narrative that lies somewhere between myth and historical fact and which, as a rule, is about a particular figure or person." Traditionally, a legend is a narrative that focuses on a historically or geographically specific figure, and describes his exploits. Similar to a myth, a legend can provide an etymological narrative, often filling in historical gaps. Difference Between a Legend and a MythThere are marked differences between a legend and a myth. While legends are made up stories, myths are stories that answer questions about the working of natural phenomenon. Myths are set in olden times, even in pre-historic times. However, legends are stories about people and their actions, or deeds they perform to save their people or nations.The people mentioned in legends might have lived in recent times, or sometime in known history. Legends are told to serve a specific purpose, and can be based on facts - but they are not completely true. People mentioned in a legend might not have really done what the story of the legend relates. In some cases, legends change the historical events.King Arthur, Beowulf, and Queen Boadicea are some popular English legends. However, it is also important to understand that some of the stories about the Knights of the Round Table, and Merlin the Magician may not be true. The common point between a myth and a legend is that they both have been passed down from generation to generation in oral form.Examples of Legend from Literature Example #1: FaustFaust is the major character in the classical German legend. According to the legend, Faust was a dissatisfied scholar. On account of his dissatisfaction, he makes a deal with the devil in exchange for his soul. The deal promises him a great deal of knowledge, and limitless pleasures of the world. However, he meets his tragic end, as the devil takes his soul after his death.In fact, the legend of Faust presents an over-ambitious man, who surrenders his moral integrity for the achievement of worldly powers and success for a limited period of time. This kind of character teaches us the lessons of moral integrity, and the value of ethical uprightness.Example #2: The Flying DutchmanThe Flying Dutchman is the legend of a ghost ship. According to the legend, the Flying Dutchman is cursed to never dock at a port, being doomed to sail in the oceans forever. It is likely that the legend has originated from the nautical folklore of the 17th century. The oldest surviving version of this legend dates back to the late 18th century. During the 19th and 20th centuries, there were reports of sighting the ship as a hull glowing with ghostly light. When another ship tried to make contact, the crew from the Flying Dutchman tried to send messages to land, or to people dead long ago. According to the lore, seeing the Flying Dutchman is an omen of doom.Example #3: King Arthur According to medieval histories, King Arthur was the British leader who led the British army against the invaders in the 5th and 6th centuries. It is mainly folklore that led to the composition of the legendary King Arthur story. Some literary inventions have been made in the story, but historical existence of King Arthur has always been questioned. There exist a few historical sources, such as the Annales Cambrige, the Historia Brittonum, and the writings of Gildas, which may be attributed as sources of the legend of King Arthur.Function of LegendIn literature, the function of a legend is to present the story of human actions in such a way that they are perceived by the audience to be true. Actions are presented as if they have taken place within human history. For its audiences, a legend has to include happenings that are not outside the realm of possibility, but it may include miracles. Change has certainly occurred in legends over time, giving them a freshness, vitality, and a realistic taste. On the contrary, a large number of legends function in the realm of uncertainty; neither believed, nor doubted by the audiences.

Overstatement

Overstatement is an act of stating something more profoundly than it actually is, in order to make the point more serious or important or beautiful. In literature, writers use overstatement as a literary technique for the sake of humor, and for laying emphasis on a certain point. For instance, when in his poem I wandered lonely as a cloud, Wordsworth reports daffodils as, "stretched in never-ending line." In fact, he is not saying this statement literally; rather he is merely using overstatement to add emphasis on the long line of daffodils. Examples of Overstatement in LiteratureExample #1: The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County (By Mark Twain)In Mark Twain's short story, The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County, there are several instances of overstatement. For instance, when Simon Wheeler narrates his stories concerning Jim Smiley, Wheeler makes claim that Jim was a gambler and he probably would, "... foller that straddle-bug to Mexico but what he would find out where he was bound for and how long he was on the road." It further talks about a bull pup of Jim Smiley and Andrew Jackson:"... his underjaw'd begin to stick out like the fo'castle of a steamboat, and his teeth would uncover, and shine savage like the furnaces."Example #2: The Sahara of the Bozart (By H. L. Mencken)"It is, indeed, amazing to contemplate so vast a vacuity. One thinks of the interstellar spaces, of the colossal reaches of the now mythical ether. Nearly the whole of Europe could be lost in that stupendous region of fat farms, shoddy cities and paralyzed cerebrums: one could throw in France, Germany and Italy, and still have room for the British Isles. And yet, for all its size and all its wealth and all the 'progress' it babbles of, it is almost as sterile, artistically, intellectually, culturally, as the Sahara Desert."Mencken presents evidence to show his disdain against the southern region of U.S. He berates it for its paucity of cultural, and artistic and intellectual attainment, and therefore calls it the "Sahara Desert," which is culturally dead.Example #3: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) "O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright!It seems she hangs upon the check of nightLike a rich jewel in an Ethiop's ear."Romeo is praising Juliet's beauty by using light exaggeration. Here, the playwright uses metaphor to get this job done by comparing Juliet to a burning light that gives light to torches, and like a glowing jewel that shines against African cheeks.Example #4: Revenge of the Pork Person (By Dave Barry)"A man can have a belly you could house commercial aircraft in and a grand total of eight greasy strands of hair, which he grows real long and combs across the top of his head so that he looks, when viewed from above, like an egg in the grasp of a giant spider, plus this man can have B.O. to the point where he interferes with radio transmissions, and he will still be convinced that, in terms of attractiveness, he is borderline Don Johnsons."In this instance, the author is making an overstatement by a silly comparison between a man's belly and various other things.Example #5: Parker's Back (By Flannery O'Connor)Flannery O'Connor, in one of his short stories, Parker's Back, uses overstatement by writing:"And the skin on her face was thin and drawn tight like the skin on an onion and her eyes were gray and sharp like the points of two ice picks."Example #6: I wandered lonely as a cloud (By William Wordsworth)"An hundred years should go to praiseThine eyes and on thy forehead gaze;Two hundred to adore each breast,But thirty thousand to the rest;An age at least to every part, ..."In this example, the poet exaggerates the beauty of his beloved, and says if he had enough time, he would keep on complimenting all of her body parts, even for a bazillion years, which is quite impossible.Function of Overstatement Writers use this literary technique intentionally to create certain effect. Mostly, it helps to lay emphasis on some point. In prose, its purpose is to create humor and emphasis. When writers want to emphasize a point, they overstate it or exaggerate it. While in poetry, its purpose is to make comparisons and create images. Poets also use it for emphasizing a contrast between two things, by stating one idea as normal and another with overstatement.

Superlative

Superlative is a literary device that is usually an adjective or adverb used to distinguish an object from three or more others of its type. Superlative is used in both literary as well as scientific writing to emphasize certain objects, persons, places, or events, which have unique or extraordinary attributes. The term superlative can only be applied when three or more objects are compared. Superlatives are usually formed by adding the suffix -est to most adjectives and adverbs, or by adding "most" or "least" before them. Some common examples of superlative are given below.My cousin is the tallest among the giantsEllen DeGeneres gave the funniest commencement speech in the history of our university.Which do you suppose is the most difficult language to learn?Superlative and Adjective/AdverbIt is important to note here that superlatives should not be confused with comparative adjectives and adverbs. In comparative adjectives or adverbs you compare two objects, while the superlative comparison is between three or more objects.Examples of Superlative in Literature Example #1: King Lear, Act Two, Scene 3 (By William Shakespeare)"While I may scape,I will preserve myself: and am bethoughtTo take the basest and most poorest shape,That ever penury, in contempt of man,Brought near to beast."Just observe the words in bold. Here, the double superlative has been used by Shakespeare.Example #2: Song (By John Donne)"Sweetest Love! I do not goFor weariness of thee,Nor in hope the world can shewA fitter love for me..."John Donne employed some of the most beautiful usage of superlatives in his famous poems, such as the one given here: "Sweetest Love."Example #3: A Fever (By John Donne) "Or if when thou, the world's soul, goestIt stay,'t is but thy carcase then,The fairest woman but thy ghost,But corrupt worms the worthiest men."The words in bold are two superlative examples.Example #4: I Love You the Purplest (By Barbara M. Joosse)"Mama, who has the most worms?" he asked.Mama smiled. "Max, your can is full of the liveliest worms.And Julian, your can has the juiciest."Barbara M. Joosse has used some beautiful examples of superlatives in her "I Love You the Purplest.Example #5: Subterranean Gothic (By Paul Theroux)"It has the longest rides of any subway in the world, the biggest stations, the fastest trains, the most track, the most passengers, the most police officers. It also has the filthiest trains, the most bizarre graffiti, the noisiest wheels, the craziest passengers, the wildest crimes."Paul Theroux, in "Subterranean Gothic," makes a very interesting use of superlative as can be seen in this paragraph.Example #6: The Anthologist (By Nicholson Baker)"It is turning out to be the most beautiful, most quiet, largest, most generous, sky-vaulted summer I've ever seen or known - inordinately blue, with greener leaves and taller trees than I can remember, and the sound of the lawnmowers all over this valley is a sound I could hum to forever."Another amusing example of superlatives can be found in The Anthologist, by Nicholson Baker, as shown in the above excerpt.Function of SuperlativeA superlative is used to indicate an extreme or unsurpassed level of emotion, association, or hatred for an object or a person, or even an event. Particularly, in literature it is used to show the best or the worst of something, to add color or romance to a literary piece.

Suspense

Suspense is a literary device that authors use to keep their readers' interest alive throughout the work. It is a feeling of anticipation that something risky or dangerous is about to happen. The purpose of using this type of anxiety in literature is to make readers more concerned about the characters, and to form sympathetic association with them. Therefore, authors create scenarios that could force readers to understand, and to want to read on to see what their beloved characters face the next. Difference Between Suspense and MysteryMystery and suspense are interrelated. Sometimes it becomes difficult to differentiate between them. For example, the author exposes the same information for his readers in the mystery narrative that a detective may know. In a suspense narrative, on the other hand, the protagonist gradually becomes aware of the peril and dangers, which readers already know. Secondly, in a mystery, a major event such as a murder or robbery happens at first and then the protagonist solves it, whereas in a suspense story, a major event occurs at the end, and various events unfold, twist, turn, and surprise the readers prior to that event.Examples of Suspense in Literature Example #1: Tarzan of the Apes (by Edgar Rice Burroughs)In his novel, Tarzan of the Apes, Edgar Rice Burroughs builds suspense through different verbal clues. Tarzan falls for a girl named Jane, who is carried away by a brutal gorilla. Then, Jane asks, "How can anyone vanquish such a mighty antagonist?" It is quite a surprising question, which informs readers that the gorilla is a very strong and powerful opponent, and that Jane thinks Tarzan has very little chance of besting him. This situation creates suspense in Tarzan's life, pushing readers to keep reading the story to find out what Tarzan and Jane are going to face in their lives.Example #2: Othello (by William Shakespeare)An author may also use dramatic irony to create suspense in his work. Dramatic irony occurs when readers or audiences know something that characters do not. This is exactly what Shakespeare has done in "Othello" in which malevolent Iago plays the role of a villain who creates jealousy in Othello, to destroy his life and career by convincing him that his wife is deceitful. The readers know that Othello's wife is not guilty, and that Iago has wicked intentions toward Othello. However, Othello is ignorant of this fact.Throughout the play, readers feel curious and worried, because they know that Iago is making a fool of Othello. This creates suspense for readers and members of the audience, encouraging them to continue reading and watching, as they are eager to know if Othello gets out of Iago's trap or not.Example #3: Sharp Objects (by Gillian Flynn) The novel, Sharp Objects, is a chilling story of a Chicago-based journalist, Camille Preaker, who comes from a family with a dead sister, a troubled mother, and an irritable stepsister. The suspense starts when Camille's boss asks her to go to her hometown in Missouri, to cover the story of a local girl who had been brutally murdered. During her trip home, a series of suspicious murders occurs. As the story unravels, Camille discovers the real source of evil is close to her beloved home.Example #4: Twilight (by Stephenie Meyer)Twilight falls under the categories of suspense, romance, and horror. Bella falls in love with a mysterious and handsome boy, Edward Cullen. She learns that Edward is a vampire who, unlike other vampires, does not drink human blood, but that of animal. It is an exquisite fantasy and suspense story in which readers discover these two star-crossed lovers. Edward has a difficult time controlling the blood lust Bella arouses in him, because, after all, he is a vampire.At any time, Edward's blood hunger could drive him to kill Bella. This leaves him in a constant state of anxiety over the danger. While a sadistic vampire, James, draws towards Bella, hunting her down, Edward and his other family members defend her. Looking for protection, Bella leaves for Phoenix, Arizona, but James tricks her, and tries to murder her. Though Edward saves her, Bella is wounded.FunctionSuspense ensures the interest of readers by putting them on the edges of their seats, waiting for what's next. If an author does this well, suspense continues to increase gradually until the climax, or the turning point, and final confrontation is reached. Writers and authors use suspense to create empathy with their readers, by giving their characters internal struggles with which readers can identify. Readers feel apprehension for their beloved characters whenever they are in danger.

Syllogism

Syllogism is a rhetorical device that starts an argument with a reference to something general, and from this it draws a conclusion about something more specific. Let us try to understand the concept with the help of an example. We start with a general argument "All men are mortal." We know that John is a man, so John is mortal. It is a deductive approach to reason, and is based on deducing specific conclusions from general facts.We notice in the above example that syllogism is a three-part set of statements:a major statement or premisea minor statement or premisea conclusion that is deducedTherefore, "All men are mortal" is a major statement or premise, which stands as a general fact. "John is a man" is minor statement or premise that is specific, and "John is mortal" is the logical conclusion deduced from the two prior statements.Syllogism and EnthymemeSyllogism takes the form of enthymeme when it is compressed. Enthymeme combines the minor premise and the conclusion, omitting the major statement. For instance, a syllogism "All dogs are canine. Tommy is a dog. Therefore, Tommy is a canine," can be compressed in an enthymeme as "Tommy is a canine because it is a dog." The major premise remains implied or hidden.Syllogism Fallacy Syllogism may also be used to form incorrect conclusions that are odd. For instance, "All crows are black, and the bird in my cage is black. So, the bird in my cage is a crow." This is a false argument, as it implies a conclusion that "all blackbirds are crows," which is incorrect. It is known as "syllogism fallacy." Another example of syllogism fallacy is "Some televisions are black and white, and all penguins are black and white. Therefore, some televisions are penguins." You can easily see that the conclusion is practically impossible, and in fact has a comical outcome.Examples of Syllogism in LiteratureThere are numerous examples of syllogism or coming-of-age novels in English literature. Let us briefly analyze a few:Example #1: Timon of Athens (By William Shakespeare)William Shakespeare employs this rhetorical device in his play Timon of Athens, Act 4, scene 3:Flavius: "Have you forgot me, sir?"Timon: "Why dost ask that? I have forgot all men;Then, if thou grant'st thou'rt a man, I have forgot thee."Timon uses a witty syllogism to tell Flavius that he must have forgotten him like he has forgotten all other men. It can be expanded in a three-set argument as: "I usually do forget, as I have forgotten everyone. Therefore, I have forgotten you as well."Example #2: To his Coy Mistress (By Andrew Marvell)Poetry is known for its passion and not reason, but we find syllogistic argument in Andrew Marvell's poem To his Coy Mistress. The poet says to his bashful beloved:"Had we but world enough, and time. This coyness, Lady, were no crime."It implies a general truth that life is short and man is mortal. They do not have enough time to love, and cannot waste it in display of coyness.Likewise, he and his darling may separate eternally before their union in this world is established. Therefore, he says:"But at my back I always hearTime's wingèd chariot hurrying near;"and speaks to his beloved, with the conclusion that they should avail themselves of the time they have:"Thy beauty shall no more be found...Now let us sport us while we may,"Example #3: Elegy 2 The Anagram (By John Donne) Compressed syllogism is found in famous metaphysical poet John Donne's Elegy 2 The Anagram:"All love is wonder; if we justly doAccount her wonderful, why not lovely too?"If we expand the above syllogism, it will have the following organization of statements: All that is lovable is wonderful, and the mistress is wonderful. Therefore, the mistress is lovable.Function of SyllogismIn logic, syllogism aims at identifying the general truths in a particular situation. It is a tool in the hands of a speaker or a writer to persuade the audience or the readers, as their belief in a general truth may tempt them to believe in a specific conclusion drawn from those truths. In literature, syllogism can contribute to add wit to the statements. Moreover, syllogism fallacy may give us an opportunity to enjoy nonsensical conclusions.

Symbolism

Symbolism is the use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities, by giving them symbolic meanings that are different from their literal sense. Symbolism can take different forms. Generally, it is an object representing another, to give an entirely different meaning that is much deeper and more significant. Sometimes, however, an action, an event or a word spoken by someone may have a symbolic value. For instance, "smile" is a symbol of friendship. Similarly, the action of someone smiling at you may stand as a symbol of the feeling of affection which that person has for you.Symbols do shift their meanings depending on the context they are used in. "A chain," for example, may stand for "union" as well as "imprisonment". Thus, symbolic meaning of an object or an action is understood by when, where, and how it is used. It also depends on who reads the work.Common Examples of Symbolism in Everyday LifeIn our daily life, we can easily identify objects that can be taken as examples of symbolism, such as the following:The dove is a symbol of peace.A red rose, or the color red, stands for love or romance.Black is a symbol that represents evil or death.A ladder may stand as a symbol for a connection between heaven and earth.A broken mirror may symbolize separation.Short Examples of Symbolism in Sentences Ching Chua gave his wife a red rose. (In Chinese culture, the color red symbolizes property and happiness.)David stopped his car at the red signal. (In other cultures, the color red is symbol of blood, passion, and danger.)Rebels raised a white flag to negotiate. (During war, the color white symbolizes making peace with the enemy. Otherwise, it represents purity and life.)The Red Cross is working around the world. (The symbol of the cross represents Christianity, and the red cross in particular represents aid in times of need.)The Muslim forces raised their flag with a crescent on it. (The crescent moon represents Islam.)He turned green when found a wallet. (Green color is often associated with greed, jealousy, and monetary affairs.)They dressed in black to the funeral of their friend. (The color black is associated with death.)The yellow boat turned into the channel, to make the tourists happy. The color yellow color is the symbol of deterioration and infidelity, as well as the symbol of freshness and happiness.)He was disappointed when the mirror broke. (Broken mirror is an symbol of separation.)He gave a red rose to his wife on Valentine Day. (Red rose is a symbol for love.)He, after a long time, saw a silver lining in the shape of the arrival of his brother. (Silver edge/lining of clouds symbolize hope and optimism.)You have a sixth sense like an owl. (Owl symbolizes wisdom.)You work like an ox. (The ox symbolizes hard work and stamina.)When he saw a bat in dream, he grew white with fear. (Bats are the symbol of death.)Examples of Symbolism in LiteratureTo develop symbolism in his work, a writer utilizes other figures of speech, like metaphors, similes, and allegory, as tools. Some symbolism examples in literature are listed below with brief analysis:Example #1: As you Like It (By William Shakespeare)We find symbolic value in Shakespeare's famous monologue in his play As you Like It:"All the world's a stage,And all the men and women merely players;they have their exits and their entrances;And one man in his time plays many parts,"These lines are symbolic of the fact that men and women, in the course of their lives, perform different roles. "A stage" here symbolizes the world, and "players" is a symbol for human beings.Example #2: Ah Sunflower (By William Blake)William Blake goes symbolic in his poem Ah Sunflower. He says:"Ah Sunflower, weary of time,Who countest the steps of the sun;Seeking after that sweet golden climeWhere the traveler's journey is done;"Blake uses a sunflower as a symbol for human beings, and "the sun" symbolizes life. Therefore, these lines symbolically refer to their life cycle and their yearning for a never-ending life.Example #3: Wuthering Heights (By Emily Bronte) Emily Bronte's Wuthering Heights presents almost every character, house, surroundings, and events in a symbolic perspective. The word "Wuthering," which means "stormy," represents the wild nature of inhabitants. The following lines allow us to look into the symbolic nature of two characters:"My love for Linton is like the foliage in the woods. Time will change it; I'm well aware, as winter changes the trees. My love for Heathcliff resembles the eternal rocks beneath a source of little visible delight, but necessary."The phrase "foliage of leaves" for is a symbol for Linton's fertile and civilized nature. On the contrary, Heathcliff is likened to an "eternal rock," which symbolizes his crude and unbendable nature.Example #4: Wild Asters (By Sara Teasdale)Sara Teasdale in her poem Wild Asters develops a number of striking symbols:"In the spring, I asked the daisiesIf his words were true,And the clever, clear-eyed daisiesAlways knew.Now the fields are brown and barren,Bitter autumn blows,And of all the stupid astersNot one knows."In the above lines, "spring" and "daisies" are symbols of youth. "Brown and barren" are symbols of transition from youth to old age. Moreover, "Bitter autumn" symbolizes death.Example #5: The Rain (By William H. Davies)"I hear leaves drinking rain;I hear rich leaves on topGiving the poor beneathDrop after drop;Tis a sweet noise to hearThese green leaves drinking near."In this beautiful poem, William Davies who has used the symbol of rain to show the different classes of society. He does this by describing the way the upper leaves benefit from the rain first, and then hand down the rest to the lower leaves. The same way, rich people pass on the leftover benefits to the poor people.Example #6: My Heart Leaps Up When I Behold (By William Wordsworth)"My heart leaps up when I beholdA rainbow in the sky:So was it when my life began;So is it now I am a man;So be it when I shall grow old, ..."In this poem, the poet uses rainbow as a symbol of hope and general wellbeing throughout his life.Example #7: XXIII, Crossing Alone the Nighted Ferry (By A. E. Housman)"Crossing alone the nighted ferryWith the one coin for fee,Whom, on the wharf of Lethe waiting,Count you to find? Not me."The poet has used the symbol of a river to represent life and the past memories associated with it.Function of SymbolismSymbolism gives a writer freedom to add double levels of meanings to his work: a literal one that is self-evident, and the symbolic one whose meaning is far more profound than the literal. Symbolism, therefore, gives universality to the characters and the themes of a piece of literature. Symbolism in literature evokes interest in readers as they find an opportunity to get an insight into the writer's mind on how he views the world, and how he thinks of common objects and actions, having broader implications.

Syncope

Syncope is a literary device that can be defined as the contraction or the shortening of a word by omitting sounds, syllables or letters from the middle of the word, such as bos'n for the word "boatswain." Similarly, ne'er for the word "never," and fo'c'sle' for the word "forecastle" are also used. From these examples, syncope can also be defined as the dropping of the unstressed vowels, letters, or syllables, or dropping the consonants from the middle of a word. It can be found in synchronic analysis and diachronic analysis of languages. Uses of Syncope1. As a Poetic DeviceSyncope is mainly used in poetry, when poets desperately want to avoid a single syllable from a word to harmonize the meter in each line. However, syncope can be found in drama and in prose as well.2. Used in Informal SpeechSyncope is also used in informal speech. For instance, different kinds of colloquial contractions may also be called syncope.Examples of Syncope in Literature Poetic contractions are often found in English verse, from the Restoration period to the end of the 18th century. Poets and writers use syncope to produce rhetorical effects in literature. Let's take a look at some examples from literary texts to understand syncope.Example #1: The Deserted Village (By Oliver Goldsmith)In the 18th century, contractions were signified typographically by using apostrophes, such as in this example:"For talking age and whisp'ring lovers made!Ill fares the land, to hast'ning ills a prey,And his last falt'ring accents whisper'd praise."Example #2: The World Is Too Much with Us (By William Wordsworth)"The road extended o'er the heathWeary and bleak: no cottager had thereWon from the waste a rood of ground, no hearthOf Traveller's half-way house with its turf smokeScented the air through which the plover wingsHis solitary flight."Here, Wordsworth necessarily contracts the word over into "o'er," for the sake of rhyme, and to give the lines a colloquial feel.Example #3: A Lover's Complaint (By William Shakespeare) "This said, his wat'ry eyes he did dismount,Whose sights till then were levell'd on my face,Each cheek a river running from a fount,With brinish current downward flowe'd a pace..."The best examples of syncope can be seen in Shakespeare's poetry. Here, Shakespeare made use of syncope in these words: wat'ry for "watery," levell'd for "levelled," and flowe'd for "flowered." The contractions have been used to keep the metrical rhythm the same in each line.Example #4: Cymbeline (By William Shakespeare)"...Thou thy worldly task hast done,Home art gone and ta'en thy wages..."Further he says,"I would thou grew'st unto the shores o' the haven,And question'dst every sail: if he should writeAnd not have it, 'twere a paper lost,As offer'd mercy is. What was the lastThat he spake to thee?"The words ta'en for "taken," grew'st, question'dst, and offer'd have been used as syncope to rhyme the poem.Function of SyncopeThe syllables or letters are mostly deleted from the center of words in speech to speed up the conversation, or to balance the rhythmical pattern of the poetic verse. The purpose is to create a rhetorical effect for embellishment and meter. However, in poetry and stylized prose it is generally used to modify the word sound.Either single letters or complete syllables are removed from a word with the insertion of an apostrophe -this makes it easy to read, and perfects the metrical rhythm. Generally, it was a fashion during the Chaucerian age, and more so during the Elizabeth age, when erudite people used it in their writings to embellish the piece, and to create artistic effect in the readers' minds. However, sometimes it comes into view as a rustic style, and is therefore used as a literary device to differentiate simple country folk. Some dialects and languages make more use of syncope than others, such as the Scots.

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a literary device in which a part of something represents the whole, or it may use a whole to represent a part. Synecdoche may also use larger groups to refer to smaller groups, or vice versa. It may also call a thing by the name of the material it is made of, or it may refer to a thing in a container or packaging by the name of that container or packing. Difference Between Synecdoche and MetonymySynecdoche examples are often misidentified as metonymy (another literary device). While they resemble one another to some extent, they are not the same. Synecdoche refers to the whole of a thing by the name of any one of its parts. For example, calling a car "wheels" is a synecdoche because a part of the car, its "wheels," stands for the whole car. However, in metonymy, the word used to describe a thing is closely linked to that particular thing, but is not necessarily a part of it. For example, using the word "crown" to refer to power or authority is a metonymy, used to replace the word "king" or "queen."Synecdoche Examples from Everyday Life It is very common to refer to a thing by the name of its parts. Let us look at some of the examples of synecdoche that we often hear in casual conversations:The word "bread" refers to food or money, as in "Writing is my bread and butter," or "He is the sole breadwinner."The phrase "gray beard" refers to an old man.The word "sails" refers to a whole ship.The word "suit" refers to a businessman.The word "boots" usually refers to soldiers.The term "coke" is a common synecdoche for all carbonated drinks."Pentagon" is a synecdoche when it refers to a few decision makers.The word "glasses" refers to spectacles.Examples of Synecdoche in LiteratureExample #1: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Taylor Coleridge)"The western wave was all a-flame.The day was well was nigh done!Almost upon the western waveRested the broad bright Sun"The "western wave" is a synecdoche, as it refers to the sea by the name of one of its parts, a wave.Example #2: Sonnet 116 (By William Shakespeare)"O no! It is an ever-fixed markThat looks on tempests and is never shaken."The phrase "ever-fixed mark" refers to a lighthouse.Example #3: Ozymandias (By Percy Bysshe Shelly) "Tell that its sculptor well those passions readWhich yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things,The hand that mocked them.""The hand" in these lines refers to the sculptor, who carved the "lifeless things" into a grand statue.Example #4: The Secret Sharer (By Joseph Conrad)"At midnight I went on deck, and to my mate's great surprise put the ship round on the other tack. His terrible whiskers flitted round me in silent criticism."The word "whiskers" mentioned in the above lines refers to the whole face of the narrator's mate.Example #5: The Description of the Morning (By Jonathan Swift)"Prepar'd to scrub the entry and the stairs.The youth with broomy stumps began to trace."In the above lines, the phrase "broomy stumps" refers to the whole broom.Example #6: The Lady or the Tiger? (By Frank R. Stockton)"His eye met hers as she sat there paler and whiter than anyone in the vast ocean of anxious faces about her.""Faces" refers to people, not just their faces.Function of SynecdocheLiterary symbolism is developed by the writers who employ synecdoche in their literary works. By using synecdoche, writers give otherwise common ideas and objects deeper meanings, and thus draw readers' attention.Furthermore, the use of synecdoche helps writers to achieve brevity. For instance, saying "The soldiers were equipped with steel" is more concise than saying "The soldiers were equipped with swords, knives, daggers, and arrows."Like any other literary device, synecdoche when used appropriately adds a distinct color to words, making them appear vivid. To insert this "life" factor to literary works, writers describe simple ordinary things creatively with the aid of this literary device.

Synesis

Synesis is a conventional grammatical term derived from a Greek word that means unification, sense, meeting, or realization. It is a rhetorical device in which the traditional grammatical agreement of syntax is replaced by an agreement in its sense. In other words, synesis is a grammatical construction that is in agreement with the sense instead of the strict syntax. It is used to highlight the words' construction according to the sense not its morphosyntactic form. Such as: "Fat, drunk, and stupid is no way to go through life, son."(Animal House by Harold Ramis, Douglas Kenney, and Chris Miller)Types of SynesisKinesthetic imagery is further divided into two categories:Notional concord or notional agreement is one type of grammatical agreement in which the agreement is made with the meaning of a noun instead of complying with a strict syntactic requirement.Situational agreement involves the singular and the plural forms of a word being the same. Its singularity or plurality depends upon the interpretation or intentional emphasis of the writer or speaker.Difference Between Synesis and Anacoluthon Synesis is a kind of anacoluthon, which is a syntactic interruption. Though both are anti-grammatical constructions but are different. It is because synesis is used to highlight the word construction according to their sense rather than grammatical form. For example:"Among the growing numbers of men seeking his services, a significant proportion are spurred to do so by female voices..."(Europe's Extraordinary Makeover, by Catherine Mayer)On the other hand, anacoluthon is the disruption in the grammatical flow of the words, by beginning another sentence immediately. Such as:"A plank that was dry was not disturbing the smell of burning and altogether there was the best kind of sitting there could never be all the edging that the largest chair was having...."(A Portrait of Mabel Dodge, by Gertrude Stein)Examples of Synesis in LiteratureExample #1: The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (By Mark Twain)"What's the use you learning to do right, when it's troublesome to do right and it ain't no trouble to do wrong, and the wages is just the same?"In these lines, the writer uses the plural form of "wage," with the auxiliary verb "is," which is syntactically wrong. However, the agreement of the words is made in accordance with the sense, which is to say it is singular in a sense, but plural in form.Example #2: 1984 (By George Orwell)"For, after all, how do we know that two and two make four? Or that the force of gravity works? Or that the past is unchangeable? If both the past and the external world exist only in the mind, and if the mind itself is controllable - what then?"In this excerpt, the grammatical construction of the words "two and two make four," which should be "makes" instead of "make." The arrangement is not made in morphosyntactic form. Instead, the words are arranged according to their logic.Example #3: Wagner's Parsifal (By Charles D. Warner) "Most of the audience were standing, and the house was in a buzz of conversation and expectation."Here, the word "audience" takes the number with the word "was" because with this auxiliary verb, it regularly agrees grammatically. However, it is in harmony with "were," which is correct logically and not grammatically.Example #4: King Lear (By William Shakespeare)"I will have such revenges on you both,That all the world shall-I will do such things,What they are, yet I know not..."In this passage, Shakespeare uses "revenges" in the sentence, which is plural in sense. It is logically true, but syntactically wrong.Function of SynesisSynesis is commonly used in writing as a deliberate effect. Often it is employed in dramatic monologues, prose, and poetry. Synesis is frequently used in the stream of consciousness style of writing, since it is a basic feature of informal thoughts. Apart from that, the most important function of synesis is to draw the attention of readers by allowing them to stop and consider the underlying meaning. Usually, it causes confusion in the minds of readers, and makes them comprehend the purpose of construction of words according to their logic, rather than grammatical form. Synesis is widely used in media and political public speeches.

Syntax

Syntax is a set of rules in a language. It dictates how words from different parts of speech are put together in order to convey a complete thought. Syntax and DictionSyntax and diction are closely related. Diction refers to the choice of words in a particular situation, while syntax determines how the chosen words are used to form a sentence. More often than not, adopting a complex diction means a complex syntactic structure of sentences, and vice versa. In combination, syntax and diction help writers develop tone, mood, and atmosphere in a text, along with evoking readers' interest.Examples of Syntax in Literature Syntax in PoetryThe general word order of an English sentence is Subject+Verb+Object. In poetry, however, the word order may be shifted to achieve certain artistic effects, such as producing rhythm or melody in the lines, achieving emphasis, and heightening connection between two words. The unique syntax used in poetry makes it different from prose. Let us consider the following examples of syntax:Example #1: Beyond Decoration (By P. J. Kavanagh)In casual conversations, we can simply say, "I cannot go out" to convey our inability to go out. P. J. Kavanagh's poem Beyond Decoration does not rely on merely stating a prosaic "I cannot go out." Rather, he shifts the syntax and says "Go out I cannot," which lays a much stronger emphasis on the inability to go out conveyed by the word "cannot."Example #2: Lycidas (By John Milton) Similarly, John Milton shifts words in his poems frequently. Let us analyze lines from his poem Lycidas:"Thee, Shepherd, thee the woods and desert caves,With wild thyme and the gadding vine o'ergrown,And all their echoes mourn"The modified word order in the above lines is Object+Subject+Subject Complement+Verb.Syntax in ProseSyntax affects the nature of a prose text as well. It enhances its meanings, and contributes toward its tone. Quickness, decisiveness, and speed are added to a text by using short phrases, clauses, and sentences. Whereas, in a text where the subject matter is serious, requiring contemplation, long, convoluted sentences are used to slow down the pace of a prose text. The two syntax examples below show a distinct use of syntax:Example #3: The Joy Luck Club (By Amy Tan)"That night I sat on Tyan-yu's bed and waited for him to touch me. But he didn't. I was relieved."Here, Amy Tan uses short sentences to communicate in a powerful and concise manner.Example #4: A Farewell to Arms (By Ernest Hemingway)"They left me alone and I lay in bed and read the papers awhile, the news from the front, and the list of dead officers with their decorations and then reached down and brought up the bottle of Cinzano and held it straight up on my stomach, the cool glass against my stomach, and took little drinks making rings on my stomach from holding the bottle there between drinks, and watched it get dark outside over the roofs of the town."Ernest Hemingway uses long and complex structures to emphasize the laziness of his character.Syntax in ShakespeareWriting all of his plays and sonnets in iambic pentameter, Shakespeare habitually reversed the general order of English sentences by placing verbs at the ends of the sentences.Example #5: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) "What light from yonder window breaks?"Instead of using the common expression, "What light breaks from yonder window," Shakespeare emphasized his meaning by using different syntax.Example #6: Richard III (By William Shakespeare)In Richard III, Shakespeare deliberately reverses the word order of a sentence, turning a common description: "And all the clouds that lowered upon our house buried in the deep bosom of the ocean," into:"And all the clouds that lower'd upon our house in the deep bosom of the ocean buried."Function of SyntaxTo convey meaning is one of the main functions of syntax. In literature, writers utilize syntax and diction to achieve certain artistic effects, like mood, and tone. Like diction, syntax aims to affect the readers as well as express the writer's attitude.

Tautology

Tautology is the repetitive use of phrases or words that have similar meanings. In simple words, it is expressing the same thing, an idea, or saying, two or more times. The word tautology is derived from the Greek word tauto, meaning "the same," and logos, meaning "a word or an idea." A grammatical tautology refers to an idea repeated within a phrase, paragraph, or sentence to give an impression that the writer is providing extra information. Tautologies are very common in the English language due to the large variety of words it has borrowed from other languages. Given the fact that, during its evolution, the English language has been greatly influenced by several other languages - including Germanic and Latin - it is not uncommon to find several exotic tautologies. This is how tautologies can often be found in English poetry and prose.Types of TautologyThere are several types of tautology that are commonly used in everyday life, in poetry, in prose, in songs, and in discussions, depending on the requirements of a situation. Some of the common categories include:Repetitive words used due to inadequacies in the languageIntentional ambiguitiesDerisionPoetic devicePsychological significanceSpeech by inept speaker or narratorExamples of Tautology in Literature Tautology is often confused with repetition. Some authorities say repetition uses the same words, while tautology uses words with similar meanings. That tautology is the repetition - not of words, but of ideas. Others say there is no clear distinction between the two, that tautology includes the repetition of words. To understand this better, read the following examples of Tautology.Example #1:"Your acting is completely devoid of emotion."Devoid is defined as "completely empty." Thus, completely devoid is an example of tautology.Example #2:"Repeat that again," and "reiterate again."To repeat or reiterate something is to do or say it again.Example #3: Shout It Out Loud! (By Kiss) "Shout it, shout it, shout it out loud!"When a person shouts, it is always aloud.Example #4: (By Yogi Berra)"This is like deja vu all over again" (Yogi Berra)The term déjà vu means to have a feeling of having previously done or experienced something, or to be doing it all over again. "Déjà vu all over again" is an example of tautology.Example #5: The Wasteland (By T. S. Eliot)The emphatic function of tautology reveals itself in the example given below:"To Carthage then I cameBurning burning burning burning."Thomas Stern Eliot shows the emphatic function of tautology, using the word "burning" repeatedly in the same line.Example #6: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)In some excerpts, tautology is used intentionally that involves derision inherent in it.Polonious: "What do you read, my lord?"Hamlet: "Words, words, words."Here Hamlet has used words in order to show that he is lost in words that Polonius is famous in using.Example #7: The Bells (By Edgar Allen Poe)"Keeping time, time, time,In a sort of Runic rhyme...From the bells, bells, bells, bells."Example #8: The Wasteland (By T. S. Eliot)"Twit twit twit/ Jug jug jug jug jug jug"Example #9: The Hollow Men (By T. S. Eliot)"This is the way the world endsThis is the way the world endsThis is the way the world endsNot with a bang but a whimper."Here, different types of tautologies have been used in a technical way of repetition, which dominates others, such as figures of speech, imitation, and ornamentation. All of above examples might appear in the daily use of language, and also as poetic devices.Example #10: The Holy Bible (By Various Authors)Unlike the artistic inspiration built into the preceding types of redundancy, here are a couple of tautology examples with psychological implications. The speakers show the acceptance of their destiny in these types of repetition:"If I perish, I perish."(Esther 4:15)"If I be bereaved (of my children), I am bereaved."(Genesis 43:14)Function of TautologyThe importance of tautology cannot be denied in modern literary writing. Today, however, writers try to avoid using tautological words and phrases to avoid monotony and repetition. It has almost become a norm to present short and to-the-point language instead of repetitious and redundant phrases.Despite it being counted as a major style error, several writers commonly use tautology as a powerful tool to emphasize a particular idea, or to draw their readers' attention to a certain aspect of life. But it is not always taken as a quality of poor grammar; rather it has been taken as a specific rhetorical device.

Foot

The literary device "foot" is a measuring unit in poetry, which is made up of stressed and unstressed syllables. The stressed syllable is generally indicated by a vertical line ( | ), whereas the unstressed syllable is represented by a cross ( X ). The combination of feet creates meter in poetry. Later, these meters are joined for the composition of a complete poem. Therefore, a foot is the formative unit of the meter. In poetry, there are various types of foot, each of which sounds differently. Some of the basic types of foot are given below:Iamb: Combination of unstressed and stressed syllable - (daDUM)Trochee: Combination of stressed and unstressed syllables - (DUMda)Spondee: Combination of two stressed syllables - (DUMDUM)Anapest: Combination of two unstressed and a stressed syllable - (dadaDUM)Dactyl: Combination of stressed and two unstressed syllables - (DUMdada)Amphibrach: Combination of unstressed, stressed and unstressed syllable - (daDUMda)Pyrrhic: Combination of two unstressed syllables - (dada)There are two types of meter, which are known as rising meter and falling meter. Each type of meter uses a different type of foot. As the rising meters go from unstressed syllables to stressed ones, they mainly use iamb and anapest feet. On the contrary, the falling meters go from stressed syllables to unstressed ones, and mostly use trochee and dactyl feet.Examples of Foot in LiteratureExample #1: Twelfth Night (By William Shakespeare)"If music be the food of love, play on;Give me excess of it, that, surfeiting,The appetite may sicken, and so die.That strain again! it had a dying fall;O, it came o'er my ear like the sweet sound."This stanza is taken from William Shakespeare's well known play, Twelfth Night. It has been composed in iambic pentameter. To make it easy to understand the unstressed and stressed combination of syllables, the stressed syllables are given in bold font.Example #2: King Lear (By William Shakespeare)"And my poor fool is hang'd! No, no, no life!Why should a dog, a horse, a rat, have life,And thou no breath at all? Thou'lt come no more,Never, never, never, never, never!Pray you, undo this button: thank you, sir.Do you see this? Look on her, look, her lips,Look there, look there ...!"This is yet another extract from Shakespeare's another great play, King Lear. It is an appropriate example of trochaic pentameter. This has the combination of a stressed and unstressed syllable pattern - a pattern opposite to iambic.Example #3: The Destruction of Sennacherib (By Lord Byron) "The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold,And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold;And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea,When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee.Like the leaves of the forest when Summer is green,That host with their banners at sunset were seen:Like the leaves of the forest when Autumn hath blown, ...For the Angel of Death spread his wings on the blast ...And their hearts but once heaved, and forever grew still!"This is a selection from Lord Byron's poem, The Destruction of Sennacherib. It is one of the best examples of anapestic pattern of foot. In particular, it follows a tetrameter pattern, which consists of four anapests in a line. In this selection, anapests have been made bold. This entire poem follows the similar pattern. In each foot, two syllables are unstressed, while the third syllable is stressed.Example #4: The Charge of the Light Brigade (By Alfred, Lord Tennyson)"Half a league, half a league,Half a league onward,All in the valley of DeathRode the six hundred.'Forward, the Light Brigade!"Charge for the guns!' he said:Into the valley of DeathRode the six hundred."These lines have been taken from Lord Alfred Tennyson's well known poem, The Charge of the Light Brigade. It is an excellent example of the of use dactyl pentameter. The dactyl follows a pattern of stressed, unstressed, and again unstressed syllables. As it is an elegiac poem, it uses dactyl pentameter, which suits elegies. The meter in this verse functions like a building block and provides a regular rhythm.Function of Foot The function of foot is to provide the basic structure for the meter in a verse. As it is based on the combination of either two or three syllables, this combination creates musical rhythm. Therefore, it is the use of feet that brings rhythm to poetry - the reason that poetry is differentiated from prose. Without the repetition of a particular foot in a verse, poetry would be no different from prose, as the important elements of rhythm and musical quality will be missing in the absence of feet.

Euphony

The literary device euphony is derived from the Greek word euphonos, which means "sweet-voiced." It can be defined as the use of words and phrases that are distinguished as having a wide range of noteworthy melody or loveliness in the sounds they create. It gives pleasing and soothing effects to the ear due to repeated vowels and smooth consonants. It can be used with other literary devices like alliteration, assonance and rhyme to create more melodic effects. Examples of euphony are commonly found in poetry and literary prose. Features of EuphonyAll euphony examples share the following features:Euphony involves the use of long vowel sounds, which are more melodious than consonants.Euphony involves the use of harmonious consonants, such as l, m, n, r, and soft f and v sounds.Euphony uses soft consonants or semi-vowels, including w, s, y, and th or wh, extensively to create more pleasant sounds.Examples of Euphony in Literature Example #1: Ode to Autumn (By John Keats)"Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness,Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun;Conspiring with him how to load and blessWith fruit the vines that round the thatch -eves run;To bend with apples the moss'd cottage-trees,And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core;To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shellsWith a sweet kernel; to set budding more,And still more, later flowers for the bees..."There are many different words and phrases that can create euphony. However, in the given piece, Keats has used euphony in the whole poem, which gives soothing and pleasing effects. Long vowel sounds like mellow, maturing, load, ripeness, and semi-vowel sounds, like s and w, are exquisitely used.Example #2: Success (By Emily Dickinson)"Success is counted sweetestBy those who ne'er succeed.To comprehend a nectarRequires sorest need. Not one of all the purple hostWho took the flag to-dayCan tell the definition,So clear, of victory,As he, defeated, dying,On whose forbidden earThe distant strains of triumphBreak, agonized and clear!"In this poem, Emily Dickinson has used soft and harmonious consonants to create euphony. For example, s, v, and f sounds run throughout the poem. Such words are melodic in nature, hence they produce pleasing sounds.Example #3: The Lotos-Eaters (By Alfred Lord Tennyson) "'Courage!' he said, and pointed toward the land,'This mounting wave will roll us shoreward soon.'In the afternoon they came unto a landIn which it seemed always afternoon.All round the coast the languid air did swoon,Breathing like one that hath a weary dream.Full-faced above the valley stood the moon;And like a downward smoke, the slender streamAlong the cliff to fall and pause and fall did seem."Tennyson is famous for using euphony in most of his poems. He uses long vowels and semi-vowels of soft consonants. The long vowels, such as mounting, soon, languid and slender whereas soft vowels include l, s, f and w sounds that are giving sense of pleasantness.Example #4: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare)"...Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow,Creeps in this petty pace from day to dayTo the last syllable of recorded time,And all our yesterdays have lighted foolsThe way to dusty death. Out, out, brief candle!Life's but a walking shadow, a poor playerThat struts and frets his hour upon the stageAnd then is heard no more. It is a taleTold by an idiot, full of sound and fury,Signifying nothing."The language of Shakespeare is a great example of euphony. He has used pleasant, harmonious, and musical sounds in the above excerpt from Macbeth. Here, the euphonic words are shown in bold.Function of EuphonyThe purpose of using euphony is to bring about peaceful and pleasant feelings in a piece of literary work. The readers enjoy reading such pieces of literature or poems. The long vowels create more melodious effect than short vowels and consonants, making the sounds harmonious and soothing. In addition, pronunciation and enunciation become agreeable and easy. Furthermore, euphony is used in poetry and speeches to convey messages effectively to the audience and the readers.

Resolution

The literary device resolution means the unfolding or solution of a complicated issue in a story. Technically, resolution is also known as a "denouement." Most of the instances of resolution are presented in the final parts or chapters of a story. It mostly follows the climax. In certain mystery novels, climax and resolution may occur simultaneously. However, in other forms of literature, resolution takes place at the end of the story. Considering that it ends a story, resolution is an integral part of the conflict of the story.Examples of Resolution in LiteratureExample #1: Romeo and Juliet (by William Shakespeare)Capulet: O brother Montague, give me thy hand.This is my daughter's jointure, for no moreCan I demand ...Montague: But I can give thee more,For I will raise her statue in pure gold,That whiles Verona by that name is known, ...As that of true and faithful Juliet ...Capulet: As rich shall Romeo's by his lady's lie,Poor sacrifices of our enmity ...Prince: A glooming peace this morning with it brings.The sun, for sorrow, will not show his head ...This is the final dialogue that takes place between Lord Capulet and Lord Montague. Seeing their beloved children, Romeo and Juliet, committing suicide for love, both the heads of the family regret their long enmity. Now both of them agree to end the dispute between their tribes to avoid future tragedy.Example #2: The Great Gatsby (by F. Scott Fitzgerald)"They're a rotten crowd," I shouted across the lawn. "You're worth the whole damn bunch put together ... "Concluding the story "The Great Gatsby," Nick makes his mind to return to Minnesota as an escape from the rich people. He knows that the rich people are engaged in morally worthless activities. That is why he is convinced that people in Gatsby's circle are unfaithful.Example #3: The Catcher in the Rye (by J.D. Salinger) " ... That's all I'm going to tell about. I could probably tell you what I did after I went home, and how I got sick and all, and what school I'm supposed to go to next fall, after I get out of here, but I don't feel like it. I really don't. That stuff doesn't interest me too much right now ... I mean how do you know what you're going to do till you do it? The answer is, you don't. I think I am, but how do I know? I swear it's a stupid question ... "The resolution in this story takes place in the final part of the novel. Holden, the protagonist, while living in a psychiatric facility, recounts the story. He provides readers with the details of his future plans. He informs us that he will go back home and attend school, meet his parents but only after enjoying the ride of a merry-go-round in Phoebe.Example #4: The Winter's Tale (by William Shakespeare)Gentleman: One that gives out himself Prince Florizel/ Son of Polixenes, with his princess, she/ The fairest I have yet beheld, desires access...Leontes: What with him? he comes not/ Like to his father's greatness: his approach,...Florizel: Most royal sir, from thence; from him, whose daughterHis tears proclaim'd his, parting with her: thence/ A prosperous south-wind friendly, we have cross'd...Leontes: My lord, Is this the daughter of a king? ... His tears proclaim'd his, parting with her: thence...Leontes: My lord, Is this the daughter of a king..."In these extracted lines from "The Winter's Tale," the resolution occurs when Polixenes follows Florizel and Perdita to Sicily. After he finds out the true identity of Paulina, Polixenes and Leontes reconcile and both the families become happy. Leontes is also reunited with his family and discovers that Hermoin is alive.Function The resolution is the final solution in literature. Almost all the genres of storytelling make use of resolution to end a story. Actually, resolution is required to wrap up a story, and it comes after the climax. Following a heart-racing and anxiety-triggering climax, resolution gives audiences the opportunity to relax. It brings all disturbing conflicts into order, and helps the central theme of the movie or novel to resonate. Its function of resolving the problem has made it highly significant. The story would be a disaster if the resolution is presented poorly.

Verse

The literary device verse denotes a single line of poetry. The term can also be used to refer to a stanza or other parts of poetry. Generally, the device is stated to encompass three possible meanings, namely a line of metrical writing, a stanza, or a piece written in meter. It is important to note here that the term "verse" is often incorrectly used for referring to "poetry" in order to differentiate it from prose.Types of VerseThere are generally two types of verse, namely free verse and blank verse.Free VerseA free verse poem has no set meter; that is to say there is no rhyming scheme present, and the poem doesn't follow a set pattern. For some poets this characteristic serves as a handy tool for the purpose of camouflaging their fluctuation of thoughts, whereas others think that it affects the quality of work being presented.Example #1 Free VerseAfter the Sea-Ship (By Walt Whitman)"After the Sea-Ship—after the whistling winds;After the white-gray sails, taut to their spars and ropes,Below, a myriad, myriad waves, hastening, lifting up their necks,Tending in ceaseless flow toward the track of the ship:Waves of the ocean, bubbling and gurgling, blithely prying,Waves, undulating waves—liquid, uneven, emulous waves,Toward that whirling current, laughing and buoyant, with curves,Where the great Vessel, sailing and tacking, displaced the surface..."As can be seen from the stanza quoted above, there is an absence of rhyming effect and structure in each verse.Example #2 Free VerseFog (By Carl Sandburg)"The fog comeson little cat feet.It sits lookingover harbor and cityon silent haunchesand then moves on."Here, it can be observed that there is no form or rhyme scheme present in the verse.Blank VerseThere is no rhyming effect present in a blank verse poem. However, it has an iambic pentameter. It is usually employed for presenting passionate events, and to create an impact on the reader. Shakespeare was an ardent user of blank verse.Example #1 Blank VerseFurball Friend (Author Unknown)"Sweet pet by day, hunter by night. She sleeps,she eats, she plays. My feet, caught in white paws.She's up the fence, watching her prey - a bird.Poor thing, better run quick, 'cause watch, she'll pounce!She'll sweetly beg for fuss, but don't be fooled.'Cause one minute she'll purr and smile, then snap!She'll spit and hiss - and oh - surprise! A mouse.He's dead. A gift. Retracts her claws. Miaow!Figure of eight between my legs, looks upat me and purrs. The sound pulls my heartstrings.Her big blue eyes like dinner plates - so cute.Cunning she is, she knows I can't resist.Curling up tight, we sleep entwined as one.Despite her quirks, I would not change a clawof her. Cheeky Sammy: my snow-white queen."The poem quoted above depicts the use of blank verse throughout. Here, it is important to note that there is no rhyming scheme present. Also, it can be seen that there is a presence of iambic pentameter throughout the verses.Short Examples of Verse The difference between ambience and silence,When nature speaks, you are silent.(Blank Verse)Words limit the silenceUpsetting the peaceOf infinite tranquility...(Blank Verse)Flower in a faraway valley,Wind carries it away as butterflies move around.(Blank Verse)A ship sailorfrom the Westlands on the landbetween the mountains and the seas.(Blank Verse)Cold cold,Winter sticks to the trees and the seas.(Free Verse)Just off the road to city,Twilight bounds swiftly froth on the plants.(Free Verse)What thought I'd think tonight, for I walk down the streetUnder thick trees with a self-conscious mind looking at full moon.(Free Verse)The sea is silent to-day,The tides are high, the moon sparksUpon the curved stairs; on the coastThe light shines and goes; the cliffs stand,Gleaming and huge, out on a tranquil shore.(Free Verse)A land filled with iceCovered by the arches of sky,Hurls into eternity.(Free Verse)Many stars tonightAnd their memory.Yet how much room is there for quiet clouds?(Free Verse)Forgetfulness is a melodyThat frees itself from measure and beat, wanders.(Free Verse)Above the ruffles of surfThe sun sparkles on the waves,And the waves carry thunder on the shore.(Free Verse)Standing out vibrantly in the gardenA dream flower blossoms.(Free Verse)Beneath the earthly and cosmos sky,Floral butterfly ascends towards showers.(Free Verse)I entered the forest for a walk,I cross by many trees with overhead shadesWith small beam of light straining through them.(Free verse)Examples of Verse in LiteratureExample #1: Fairies and Fusiliers (By Robert Graves) "I now delightIn spiteOf the mightAnd the rightOf classic tradition,In writingAnd recitingStraight ahead,Without let or omission...Because, I've said,My rhymes no longer shall stand arrayedNo! No!My rhymes must goTwinkling, frosty,Will-o'-the-wisp-like, misty..."This is an excellent example of a free verse poem, as it's free from artificial expression of poetry. Without any poetic restraints, it gives a natural flow of reading experience.Example #2: Feelings, Now (By Katherine Foreman)"Some kind of attraction that is neitherAnimal, vegetable, nor mineral, a power notSolar, fusion, or magnetic...And find myself sitting there."This is another instance of free verse poetry that does not follow any rules, nor any rhyme scheme. However, it still gives an artistic and creative expression.Example #3: Thanatopsis (By William Cullen Bryant)"To him who in the love of Nature holdsA various language; for his gayer hoursShe has a voice of gladness, and a smile..."The above mentioned poem presents an example of blank verse that adds cadence and a subtle rhythm, mimicking the pattern of the language that is audible in nature.Example #4: Bright star, would I were stedfast as thou art (By John Keats)"Bright star, would I were stedfast as thou art—Not in lone splendour hung aloft the nightAnd watching, with eternal lids apart,Like nature's patient, sleepless Eremite,..."This is an example of a rhymed verse poem that has used an ABAB rhyme scheme, which means the first and third, and the second and fourth lines rhyme with one another.Example #5 Daffodils (By William Wordsworth)"I wandered lonely as a cloudThat floats on high o'er vales and hills,When all at once I saw a crowd,A host, of golden daffodils;Beside the lake, beneath the trees,Fluttering and dancing in the breeze."The above quoted stanza from William Wordsworth's poem Daffodils presents to the reader various examples of verse. It can be noted here that the use of the tool of verse adds a scenic element to the structure of poetry.Function of VerseThe use of verse in a piece of writing has a pleasing effect on the reader's mind. It is usually employed in poetry writing. The poets make use of the tool of verse in order to provide their poetry with a desired structure. It serves as an avenue through which writers project their ideas in the form of a composition having rhyme, rhythm, and deeper meanings. The device provides the writer with a framework for poetry writing.

Refutation

The literary term refutation refers to that part of an argument where a speaker or a writer encounters contradicting points of view. Alternatively, refutation can be described as the negation of an argument, opinion, testimony, doctrine, or theory, through contradicting evidence. It normally constitutes a part of an essay that disproves the opposing arguments. An important distinction to be appreciated is the difference between refutation and counter-argument. In the case of counter-argument, the writer acknowledges that there is substance in the contradicting argument, yet he provides evidence for his alleged stance. On the other hand, refutation goes a bit further by presenting evidence that in turn negates the opposing arguments.In a circumstance in which the writer happens to agree with certain aspects of the opposing argument, he makes a concession. However, writers and speakers rarely employ concession, as it can very easily undermine their own stance.Types of RefutationThere are various ways through which the tool of refutation can be employed. The three most common modes used for the purpose of incorporating the device of refutation in an argument are: (1) refutation through evidence, (2) refutation through logic, and (3) refutation through exposing the discrepancies of opposing argument.Refutation through EvidenceFor an argument to be counted as one of the valid examples of refutation through evidence, it needs to be an argument backed up by some form of evidence. In the absence of clear bases or justifications it cannot be declared valid. Therefore, a writer can refute a contradicting argument if he can provide evidence that conclusively negates it, or by presenting more recent or credible evidence.Refutation through LogicRefutation examples through logic are quite tricky to construct. It involves deconstructing the opposing argument, and presenting it in such a way as to highlight the discrepancies present within the argument. Most skilled writers check the validity of their arguments before publishing them. This makes refutation through logic all the more difficult. There is no denying the fact then that refutation through logic constitutes a difficult task at hand. However, writers have employed this tool in their respective writings.Refutation through Exposing Discrepancies The method involves showing that one of the contradicting arguments lacks the core ingredient of centrality to the issue as the opposition had intended to project. Also, the writer can logically present his argument as being superior to the one presented by the opposition, by showing that the opposition's argument lacks the crucial link to the topic. Further, the writer can highlight the insignificance of the opposition's argument by exposing the deficiencies found within the opposing argument.Examples of Refutation in Literature Example #1: Elements of Rhetoric (By Richard Whately)"If indeed very strong objections have obtained much currency, or have been just stated by an opponent, so that what is asserted is likely to be regarded as paradoxical, it may be advisable to begin with a Refutation."As can be seen from the excerpt quoted above, refutation of an objection should be placed in the midst of an argument. However, the nearer it is to the beginning the more effective it is likely to be.Example #2: Remarks made to the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners, Seattle, Washington (By William Kennard, Chairman of the FCC)"So we may well hear from a whole chorus of naysayers. And to all of them I have only one response: we cannot afford to wait. We cannot afford to let the homes and schools and businesses throughout America wait. Not when we have seen the future. We have seen what high capacity broadband can do for education and for our economy. We must act today to create an environment where all competitors have a fair shot at bringing high capacity bandwidth to consumers—especially residential consumers. And especially residential consumers in rural and underserved areas."This excerpt serves to illustrate the effectiveness of early refutation. The early placement of refutation within the extract has had an enhanced persuasive impact on the audience.Function of RefutationThe tool of refutation has a crucial significance in writing. It is important in determining whether the speaker or writer has successfully persuaded his readers or not. Mostly, the device of refutation is employed when one is dealing with a controversial topic. It allows the reader to prefer one argument over another. The use of the device is frequently witnessed in intricate arguments.

Utopia

The literary term utopia denotes an illusionary place that projects the notion of a perfect society to the reader. Here, the "perfect society" refers to ideal conditions achieved within the material world, as opposed to the expected idealism of afterlife in Christianity or other religions. Further, the citizens presiding in such utopias are bearers of a perfect moral code, or at the least, every violator of the moral code is harshly punished. A utopian society is one where all social evils have been cured. Utopia and HeterotopiaAn important distinction to be appreciated is that between an imaginary utopia and a live heterotopia. However, the terms should not be treated as opposites of one another. They denote a midway experience, with instances that are both real and unreal. Most of the examples that Foucault provides of heterotopias include several utopian aspects. However, the relationship between these two notions has tended to be ignored in the interpretation of heterotopia.Description of Utopian Literature A piece of writing that concerns itself with the description of a perfect society in the physical world, as opposed to the perfection of afterlife, is considered to be utopian literature. The original motives behind utopian novels were political, social, and philosophical. Plato's The Republic, written around 380 BC, is usually considered the first example of Utopia in history.Some traces of utopian elements can be found in Arthurian literature - in the idealization of King Arthur's court at Camelot - but the trend followed by medieval poets involved romanticizing an imaginary past, rather than using hypothetical utopias for the purposes of criticizing political institutions and suggesting alternatives. It was by the time of Sir Thomas More's book Utopia, written in 1516, that the notion of utopia was practically manifested, and his name for the imaginary kingdom became the new name for the writing genre.Utopia examples show common characteristics, including the following:An elaborate description of the geographic landscape, often given by guides native to the region.The narrator or protagonist of the story is an outsider to the utopian society.He is very skeptical of the society's modern political, social, economic, or ethical problems.One of the common misunderstandings about utopian models is that they serve to project a better way of life. To the contrary, the reason behind such literature is to help the reader envision the problems, paradoxes, or faults entrenched within such a political framework.Examples of Utopia in LiteratureThe examples quoted below portray various scenarios of utopia:Description of the Republic of Christianopolis, by Johannes Valentinus Andreae, 1619The City of the Sun, by Tommaso Campanella, 1602New Atlantis, by Francis Bacon, 1627Nova Solyma, the Ideal City, by Samuel Gott, circa 1649The Law of Freedom in a Platform, by Gerrard Winstanley, 1652Looking Backward, by Edward Bellamy, 1888News from Nowhere, by William Morris, 1890Freeland: a Social Anticipation, by Theodor Hertzka, 1891A Modern Utopia, by H. G. Wells, 1905Function of UtopiaOver time, the vision encapsulating the notion of utopia has suffered radical transformations. Events such as war, church reform, revolution, and economic change have contributed toward the construction of a new type of utopia.The term utopia formulated new shapes and new prefixes, each type having its own function and its own use. They are generally employed as a means of constructing an organized society in the reader's mind. The writer makes use of the tool to highlight the discrepancies prevalent within an existing political and legal framework.A utopian society is framed in such a manner as to present the idea of an ideal sociopolitical culture to the reader. The writer is presenting his audience with a standard example of a socially and morally fit society with the use of utopia, to make them realize the various deficiencies of their existing societal framework.Utopia is a tool for exposing the flaws prevalent within an existing political structure. Further, the tool has been widely employed by writers who intended to make an impact on the consciences of readers. The writer uses utopia in order to portray a scenic picture in the eyes of the reader, in an attempt to make him fully appreciate the various diverging factors contributing towards the failings of the existing society. It deals with constructing a standard sociopolitical society in the reader's mind, in order to criticize the prevalent legal norms.

Style

The style in writing can be defined as the way a writer writes. It is the technique that an individual author uses in his writing. It varies from author to author, and depends upon one's syntax, word choice, and tone. It can also be described as a "voice" that readers listen to when they read the work of a writer. Types of StyleThere are four basic literary styles used in writing. These styles distinguish the works of different authors, one from another. Here are four styles of writing:Expository or Argumentative StyleExpository writing style is a subject-oriented style. The focus of the writer in this type of writing style is to tell the readers about a specific subject or topic, and in the end the author leaves out his own opinion about that topic.Descriptive StyleIn descriptive writing style, the author focuses on describing an event, a character or a place in detail. Sometimes, descriptive writing style is poetic in nature in, where the author specifies an event, an object, or a thing rather than merely giving information about an event that has happened. Usually the description incorporates sensory details.Persuasive Style Persuasive style of writing is a category of writing in which the writer tries to give reasons and justification to make the readers believe his point of view. The persuasive style aims to persuade and convince the readers.Narrative StyleNarrative writing style is a type of writing wherein the writer narrates a story. It includes short stories, novels, novellas, biographies, and poetry.Short Examples of Style in Sentences If it sounds like I'm writing, then I prefer to rewrite it.(Conversational)"I think it's a good ide,." said Jenny."You can imagine the outcomes!" retorted Emma, pushing the door open.Reluctantly, Jenny followed.(Narrative)The sunset fills the entire sky with the lovely deep color of rubies, setting the clouds ablaze.(Descriptive)The waves waltz along the seashore, going up and down in a gentle and graceful rhythm, like dancing.(Descriptive)A trip to Switzerland is an excellent experience that you will never forget, offering beautiful nature, fun, and sun. Book your vacation trip today.(Persuasive)She hears a hoarse voice, and sees a shadow moving around the balcony. As it moves closer to her, she screams to see a gigantic wolf standing before her.(Narrative)From the garden, the child plucks a delicate rose, touching and cradling it gently as if it is a precious jewel.(Descriptive)What if you vote for me? I ensure you that your taxes will be very low, the government will provide free education, and there will be equality and justice for all citizens. Cast your vote for me today.(Persuasive)The deep blue color of the cat's eyes is like ocean water on the clearest day you could ever imagine.(Descriptive)The soft hair of my cat feels silky, and her black color sparkles as it reflects sunlight.(Descriptive)This painting has blooming flowers, rich and deep blues on vibrant green stems, begging me to pick them.(Descriptive)Our criminal investigators are famous for recovering clients' assets, as we not only take your cases but represent truly your interests.(Persuasive)Our headache medicines will give you relief for ten hours, with only one pill - and without any side effects. Try it today.(Persuasive)Tax raising strategy is wrong because it will cripple businesses. We should reduce taxes to boost growth.(Persuasive)Examples of Style in LiteratureHere are some examples of different writing styles from literature:Example #1: The Pleasures of Imagination (By Joseph Addison)"The pleasures of the imagination, taken in their full extent, are not so gross as those of sense. ... A man of polite imagination is let into a great many pleasures ... A man should endeavour, therefore, to make the sphere of his innocent pleasures as wide as possible, that he may retire into them with safety ... Delightful scenes, whether in nature, painting, or poetry, have a kindly influence on the body, as well as the mind, and not only serve to clear and brighten the imagination, but are able to disperse grief and melancholy ..."This is an example of expository writing style, in which the author describes advantages of imagination with facts and logical sequence, and tells his delight of imagination. Then, he discusses its benefits and finally gives opinions in its favor.Example #2: Summer Shower (By Emily Dickinson)"A drop fell on the apple tree,Another on the roof,And made the gables laugh,The breezes brought dejected lutes,And bathed them in the glee;And signed the fete away."This poem gives an example of descriptive style. Ms. Dickinson describes a summer rainstorm in detail, with beautiful images, so that the readers can visualize this storm in their own minds as if it is actually happening.Example #3: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Taylor Coleridge)"It is an ancient Mariner,And he stoppeth one of three.'By thy long grey beard and glittering eye,Now wherefore stopp'st thou me?The bridegroom's doors are opened wide,...The guests are met, the feast is set:Mayst hear the merry din."In this poem, Coleridge uses narrative style, as he tells a story about the ancient mariner. He uses dialogues, disputes, actions, and events in a sequence, thus providing a perfect example of the narrative style of writing.Example #4: Dorian Gray (By Oscar Wilde)"The studio was filled with the rich odor of roses, and when the light summer wind stirred amidst the trees of the garden... The sullen murmur of the bees shouldering their way through... or circling with monotonous insistence..."This is a good example of descriptive writing style since the author gives visualizations, feelings, description of a location and details about bees that could be seen and heard.Example #5: The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (By Mark Twain)"Pretty soon it darkened up and begun to thunder and lighten; so the birds was right about it ... and here would come a blast of wind that would bend the trees down and turn up the pale underside of the leaves ..."Here, Twain has demonstrated a narrative style, as well as used colloquial words in presenting this passage, as expressed through the voice of a young Southern-American boy.Example #6: The Raven (By Edgar Allen Poe)"Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary...And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floorShall be lifted - nevermore!"Here, the poet crafts a story of longing and desolation. The poem reads like a tale, containing a proper beginning, middle, and end. It has narrative elements like characterization, symbols, plot elements, and resolution that make it dramatic.Example #7: Smoke (By Henry David Thoreau)"Light-winged Smoke! Icarian bird,Melting thy pinions in thy upward flight;Lark without song, and messenger of dawn,Circling above the hamlets as thy nest;Or else, departing dream, and shadowy formOf midnight vision, gathering up thy skirts;By night star-veiling, and by dayDarkening the light and blotting out the sun;Go thou, my incense, upward from this hearth,And ask the gods to pardon this clear flame."Thoreau describes the intensity of the smoke that helps form a colorful image in the minds of the readers. He uses metaphor to compare smoke to "incense," or an "Icarian bird." He also describes "star-veiling" and "shadowy" and let the readers imagine smoke.Function of StyleA unique literary style can have great impact on the piece in which it is used, and on the readers. When authors write and put their ideas into words, they have many choices to make, which include: words, sounds, logic, sentence structures. However, different authors use different literary styles that depend on their distinct expression, and their utilization of these choices. And their choices create their niche.

Extended Metaphor

The term "extended metaphor" refers to a comparison between two unlike things that continues throughout a series of sentences in a paragraph, or lines in a poem. It is often comprised of more than one sentence, and sometimes consists of a full paragraph. Extended Metaphor Examples in ProseExample #1: Seize the Night (By Dean Koontz)"Bobby Holloway says my imagination is a three-hundred-ring circus. Currently I was in ring two hundred and ninety-nine, with elephants dancing and clowns cart wheeling and tigers leaping through rings of fire. The time had come to step back, leave the main tent, go buy some popcorn and a Coke, bliss out, cool down."(Dean Koontz, Seize the Night. Bantam, 1999)Here, it can be seen that the "circus" has been compared to the author's "imagination."Example #2: The Yiddish Policeman's Union (By Michael Chabon)"It never takes longer than a few minutes, when they get together, for everyone to revert to the state of nature, like a party marooned by a shipwreck. That's what a family is. Also the storm at sea, the ship, and the unknown shore. And the hats and the whiskey stills that you make out of bamboo and coconuts. And the fire that you light to keep away the beasts."(Michael Chabon, The Yiddish Policeman's Union. Harper, 2007)In the excerpt quoted above, the writer has compared "family" with a "shipwreck."Example #3: Life on the Mississippi (By Mark Twain) "One day [Mr. Bixby] turned on me suddenly with this settler —'What is the shape of Walnut Bend?'""He might as well have asked me my grandmother's opinion of protoplasm. I reflected respectfully, and then said I didn't know it had any particular shape. My gun powdery chief went off with a bang, of course, and then went on loading and firing until he was out of adjectives.""I had learned long ago that he only carried just so many rounds of ammunition, and was sure to subside into a very placable and even remorseful old smooth-bore as soon as they were all gone."(Mark Twain, Life on the Mississippi. Webster, 1883)Here, it can be seen that the writer makes use of metaphors like "gun powdery," "firing," and "ammunition" to describe the "anger" of Mr. Bixby.Example #4: As You Like It (By William Shakespeare)"All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players;They have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts."Shakespeare has remarkably compared "earth" to a "stage" in the excerpt mentioned above.Example #5: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)"But soft! What light through yonder window breaks?It is the East, and Juliet is the sun!Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon,Who is already sick and pale with grief."Here again, Shakespeare has made use of extended metaphor by comparing "Juliet" with the "sun."Example of Extended Metaphor in Poetry Example #6: Hope is the Thing with Feathers (By Emily Dickenson)"Hope is the thing with feathersThat perches in the soul,And sings the tune - without the words,And never stops at all,"And sweetest in the gale is heard;And sore must be the stormThat could abash the little birdThat kept so many warm."I've heard it in the chilliest land,And on the strangest sea;Yet, never, in extremity,It asked a crumb of me."In the poem given above, Emily Dickinson has remarkably made use of the tool of extended metaphor by comparing "hope" with the "little bird."Example of Extended Metaphor in Hip-Hop"But if you was LeBron James then I'd be Dwyane WadeWe both graduated at the same time from the same gradeHe was at the head of the class, on TV with celebrity acts,But that champion ring was one thing you never could grasp,I was slightly rated lower had to fight to gain exposureand that might've made me slowerbut now I have taken overAnd I'm down in Miami's Heat,living my boyhood dreamsAnd for you to do what I've done,you'd have to join MY team!"(By Iron Solomon)In the extract quoted above, Iron Solomon makes a comparison between "LeBron James" and "Dwyane Wade."Short Examples of Extended MetaphorLife is like eating a grapefruit. First, one breaks its skin; then one takes a few bites to get used to its taste, and finally one starts enjoying its flavor.The dark is an unknown and scary black blanket, a place of nightmares. It is a deep hole where light cannot reach, and where horror resides.Their heart is icy, blood frosty, its ventricles rich with icicles; and their words have turned into ice cubes that can chill iced tea.Life is a book, lying on a tabletop, its pages outspread like a thousand wings of a bird.I elegantly bloom in July,Clad in a delicate silk,I am a fringed lily.Poetry is melody to mind,It flows and rhymes,It comforts and triggers the thought.The world is a stage,where everyone is a player,and then the curtain falls.The human brain is a computer. It has programs that allow thinking, acting, and making decisions.He is a bright star, shining all the time, and helping and guiding everyone.Maria's eyes are fireflies, sparkling, speaking, and expressing many things.They are pointing guns at the people, who are bullets of their desires.You are an eagle,Soaring higher than the seagull.The café is a forest,Where wild animals scramble for food.Painting is an untamed animal,That a painter is free to show his/her feelings.My room is a dreamland,With fluffy pillows its cloudsAnd Chirping birds its angels.Extended Metaphor Examples in LiteratureExample #1: The Road Not Taken (By Robert Frost)"Two roads diverged in a yellow wood ...I took the one less traveled by,And that has made all the difference."In this poem, Frost compares life experiences and journeys to roads that a person travels. By using extended metaphor, he explicates that a harder path gives greater rewards in life.Example #2: Mother to Son (By Langston Hughes)"Well, son, I'll tell you:Life for me ain't been no crystal stair ...I'se still climbin',And life for me ain't been no crystal stair."Hughes makes a comparison between life and a crystal stair throughout this poem. A mother in the poem is detailing her struggles and experiences by explaining her staircase is tainted by "splinters" and is "bare." Despite this, she keeps "climbing," which further heightens the staircase metaphor, as a vehicle to get better or higher. Her struggles give inspiration as well as advice to her son.Example #3: Habitation (By Margaret Atwood)"Marriage is nota house or even a tent"it is before that, and colder: ..."this farwe are learning to make fire."Atwood has used extended metaphor of a habitation to explain marriage. She believes marriage is not a stable shelter, like a "house or even a tent." She rather describes it as an unstable "edge" of the forest or desert. The poem is a description of a couple "learning to make fire," while trying to survive "painfully." This extended metaphor implies that, though marriage is tough, it makes a person learn new things.Functions of Extended MetaphorExtended metaphor provides the writer with an opportunity to make a larger comparison between two things or notions. The device of extended metaphor is usually employed in prose and poetry to project a specific impression regarding things or notions in the reader's mind. Further, the tool serves to project the comparison intensely in the reader's mind, than is the case when simple metaphors or similes are used.

Tone

Tone, in written composition, is an attitude of a writer toward a subject or an audience. Tone is generally conveyed through the choice of words, or the viewpoint of a writer on a particular subject. Every written piece comprises a central theme or subject matter. The manner in which a writer approaches this theme and subject is the tone. The tone can be formal, informal, serious, comic, sarcastic, sad, or cheerful, or it may be any other existing attitude. Consider the following examples of tone:"I want to ask the authorities what is the big deal? Why do they not control the epidemic? It is eating up lives like a monster.""I want to draw the attention of the appropriate authorities toward damage caused by the epidemic. If steps are not taken to curb it, it will further injure our community."The theme of both tone examples is the same. The only way we can differentiate between them is their separate tone. The tone in the first example is casual or informal while, it is more formal in the second.Tone Examples in Common SpeechWe adopt a variety of tones in our day-to-day speech. This intonation of our speech determines what message we desire to convey. Read a few examples below:Example #1Father: "We are going on a vacation."Son: "That's great!!!"- The tone of son's response is very cheerful.Example #2Father: "We can't go on vacation this summer."Son: "Yeah, great! That's what I expected."- The son's tone is sarcastic.Example #3"Yeah, your grades on this exam will be as good as the previous exams."- The tone is pessimistic in this example.Example #4"Can someone tell me what the hell is going on here?"- This has an aggressive tone.Short Examples of Tone Though the starry sky was beautiful, his mood was so melancholic that he took no interest in it.The old man took the handful of dust from his farm and sniffed it with great pleasure.The sweet smell of spring roses made overjoyed him.The old man's face looked so peaceful after death that he seemed in deep sleep.The spectacle of sunset was so astounding that people stood watching breathlessly.The scorching heat of the desert sun burned his skin black, and he could see death hovering over his head.The singing of birds was deemed a messenger for approaching spring.His stinking breath kept listeners at a considerable distance from him.The muffled church bell sounded as thought it came from an unfathomably deep well.The kind touch of her mother's hand comforted her in her pain.He was on his way to home when he saw a boy of ten, who moved his heart as he stood weeping.The negotiations between the two states came to a halt after terms of reference could not be agreed upon.The harsh gusts of cruel cold wind battered her body.He went into the restaurant and ordered a hot coffee, the cozy atmosphere inside reminded him of the past.Examples of Tone in LiteratureTone has a significant place in literature as it manifests writers' attitudes toward different subjects.Example #1: Catcher in the Rye (By J. D. Salinger)Holden Caulfield, in J. D. Salinger's Catcher in the Rye, unfolds his personality through the tone he adopts throughout the novel. Let us have a look at some of his remarks:"All morons hate it when you call them a moron.""If a girl looks swell when she meets you, who gives a damn if she's late? Nobody.""******* money. It always ends up making you blue as hell.""Catholics are always trying to find out if you're Catholic."Holden's tone is bitterly sarcastic as he criticizes the nature of things in real life. His character may reveal the attitude of the writer towards life, as it is common for writers to use their characters as their mouthpieces.Example #2: The School (By Donald Barthelme)Observe the tone of a short story, The School, by Donald Barthelme:"And the trees all died. They were orange trees. I don't know why they died, they just died. Something wrong with the soil possibly or maybe the stuff we got from the nursery wasn't the best. We complained about it. So we've got thirty kids there, each kid had his or her own little tree to plant and we've got these thirty dead trees. All these kids looking at these little brown sticks, it was depressing."The use of the adjectives "dead" and "depressing" sets a gloomy tone in the passage. As trees signify life here, their unexpected "death" from an unknown cause gives the above passage an unhappy and pessimistic tone.Example #3: The Road Not Taken (By Robert Frost) Robert Frost, in the last stanza of his poem The Road Not Taken, gives us an insight into the effect of tone:"I shall be telling this with a sighSomewhere ages and ages hence:Two roads diverged in a wood, and I,I took the one less traveled by,And that has made all the difference."Frost tells us about his past with a "sigh," this gives the above lines an unhappy tone. This tone leads us into thinking that the speaker in the poem had to make a difficult choice.Example #4: A River Runs Through It (By Norman Maclean)"This was the last fish we were ever to see Paul catch. My father and I talked about this moment several times later, and whatever our other feelings, we always felt it fitting that, when we saw him catch his last fish, we never saw the fish but only the artistry of the fisherman."The extract contains tones of loss and nostalgia; however, the characters look quite satisfied with the way things are moving forward.Example #5: The Tell-Tale Heart (By Edgar Allen Poe)"It was A LOW, DULL, QUICK SOUND - MUCH SUCH A SOUND AS A WATCH MAKES WHEN ENVELOPED IN COTTON. I gasped for breath, and yet the officers heard it not. I talked more quickly, more vehemently but the noise steadily increased. I arose and argued about trifles, in a high key and with violent gesticulations; but the noise steadily increased. Why WOULD they not be gone? I paced the floor to and fro with heavy strides, as if excited to fury by the observations of the men, but the noise steadily increased. O God! What COULD I do?"This short story by Poe contains the tones of insanity, nervousness, and guilt. The character suffers from all these feelings, which the writer has translated into a story.Example #6: A Clean, Well-Lighted Place (By Ernest Hemingway)"It was very late and everyone had left the cafe except an old man who sat in the shadow the leaves of the tree made against the electric light. In the day time the street was dusty, but at night the dew settled the dust and the old man liked to sit late because he was deaf and now at night it was quiet and he felt the difference."In this short excerpt, the culminating tone of the writer is that of peace and serenity, though he talks of the day time in a bit different tone.Function of ToneTone, in a piece of literature, decides how the readers read a literary piece, and how they should feel while they are reading it. It stimulates the readers to read a piece of literature as a serious, comical, spectacular, or distressing manner. In addition, tone lends shape and life to a piece of literature because it creates a mood. Moreover, tone bestows voice to characters, and throws light on the personalities and dispositions of characters that readers understand better.

Tragedy

Tragedy is a type of drama that presents a serious subject matter about human suffering and corresponding terrible events in a dignified manner. Greek TragedyThe term is Greek in origin, dating back to the 5th century BC, when it was assigned by the Greeks to a specific form of plays performed at festivals in Greece. The local governments supported such plays, and the mood surrounding the presentation of these plays was that of a religious ceremony, as the entire community, along with the grand priest, attended the performances.The subject matter of Greek tragedies was derived chiefly from Homer's Iliad, and Odyssey, which included misfortunes of heroes of history and religious mythology. The three prominent Greek dramatists were Aeschylus (525-456 BC), Sophocles (496-406 BC), and Euripides (480-406 BC).Aristotle's Definition of Tragedy Aristotle defines Tragedy in his famous work Poetics as:"Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is admirable, complete (composed of an introduction, a middle part and an ending), and possesses magnitude; in language made pleasurable, each of its species separated in different parts; performed by actors, not through narration; effecting through pity and fear the purification of such emotions."From the above definition, we can understand the objective of the Greek tragedies, which is the "...purification of such emotions," also called "catharsis." Catharsis is a release of emotional tension, after an overwhelming experience, that restores or refreshes the spirit.English TragedyShaped on the models of Seneca, the first English tragedy appeared in 1561, written by Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville. The play chose the story of a British king and his sufferings at the hand of his two disobedient sons as a subject matter. The importance of the play lies in the fact that it transformed the style of English drama, from morality and mystery plays, to the writing of tragedies in the Elizabethan era.Tragedy ExamplesBelow is the list of prominent English tragedy writers and their famous works:A. Christopher MarloweMarlowe was the first English dramatist worthy of the tradition of Greek tragedy. The characters of his tragedies are the great men of history, who became victims of their own fate.TamburlaineDoctor FaustusThe Jew of MaltaEdward IIIB. William ShakespeareShakespeare, the most popular of all playwrights, knew the Greek tragedy style well and he used several Greek themes but modified them to his own purpose. He intentionally violates the unity of action and mixes tragic actions with comical. Examples of tragedy written by Shakespeare include:HamletOthelloKing LearMacbethAntony and CleopatraTroilus and CressidaC. John Webster Webster was a Jacobean dramatist who modeled his tragedies on the Shakespearean model. Among his famous works are the following tragedy examples:Titus AndronicusThe White DevilThe Duchess of MalfiD. Henrick IbsenHe is known as "the father of realism". He was the creator of some of the well-known tragedies also called "problem plays". His famous works are:A Doll's HouseHedda GablerThe Wild DuckEmperor and GalileanE. Arthur MillerHe is a famous American playwright and essayist. His famous works are:All My SonsDeath of a SalesmanThe CrucibleA View from the BridgeThe misfitsThe Difference Between Greek and English TragediesWe notice the following differences between the tragedies by the Greek playwrights, and those written by English playwrights:DeviceGreek TragediesEnglish TragediesTheme/Plot Focused on a single theme and plot Have several story lines developing at the same time into plots and sub-plotsCharacter Origins "great" characters were mortals who were equal to gods in their significance Heroes come from all walks of lifeSubject Matter Serious, treated in a dignified manner Mixed tragic with comic(Modern playwrights argue that such depiction is nearer to life as our life is a mixture of good and bad fortunes.)Purpose/Objective Religious teaching Instructive of a religious or ethical issue, though their primary objective is to entertain.

Tragic Flaw

Tragic flaw is a literary device that can be defined as a trait in a character leading to his downfall, and the character is often the hero of the literary piece. This trait could be the lack of self-knowledge, lack of judgment, and often it is hubris (pride). The Greek word for Tragic flaw is hamaratia or hamartanein, which means "to err." It was Aristotle who introduced this term first in his book Poetics, and his idea was that it is an "error of judgment" on the part of a hero that brings his downfall. A tragic flaw is also called a "fatal flaw" in literature and films. This is taken as a defective trait in the character of the hero.Examples of Tragic Flaw in LiteratureExample #1: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles)OEDIPUS:"Aye, and on thee in all humilityI lay this charge: let her who lies withinReceive such burial as thou shalt ordain...But for myself, O never let my Thebes...The burden of my presence while I live...God speed thee! and as meed for bringing themMay Providence deal with thee kindlierThan it has dealt with me ...His will was set forth fully — to destroyThe parricide, the scoundrel; and I am he...But I am the gods' abhorrence."Tragic flaw examples are found in tragedies - and Oedipus Rex is the major play that is set as a yardstick.Oedipus is a perfect example of having a tragic flaw in this famous Greek tragedy. The cause of his downfall was his inadvertent wrongdoings. The hubris of Oedipus is the cause which made him disobey the prophecy of the gods. Ironically, he ended up doing what he was scared of the most, such that he became an abhorrence to the gods, in his own words.Example #2: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)HAMLET:"To be, or not to be-that is the question:Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to sufferThe slings and arrows of outrageous fortuneOr to take arms against a sea of troublesAnd by opposing end them. To die, to sleep...No more; and by a sleep to say we endThe heart-ache and the thousand natural shocksThat flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummationDevoutly to be wish'd. To die, to sleep..."In Hamlet, the tragic flaw determines his downfall in the play. And his tragic flaw is his indecisiveness, which is due to grave thinking on the topic of whether vengeance is wrong or right, and whether to kill his father's murderer or not. In the course of time, his relationship with his mother is spoiled, and Ophelia commits suicide. He reveals this indecisiveness in this excerpt.Example #3: Dr. Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe) Faustus:"But Faustus' offense can ne'er be pardoned;The serpent that tempted Eve may be saved,But not Faustus ... God forbade it indeed but Faustus hath done it. Forthe vain pleasure of four and twenty years hath Faustuslost eternal joy and felicity ... Fair nature's eye, rise, rise again and makePerpetual day. Or let this hour be but a year,A month, a week, a natural day,That Faustus may repent and save his soulO mercy, heaven! Look not so fierce on me ... I'll burn my books."The character of Dr. Faustus is also one of the best examples of tragic flaw. The tragic flaw of Dr. Faustus is his ambitious nature to learn. He made a contract with Lucifer and sold his soul in this connection. Finally, his soul is taken to hell, and then he realizes his sin and repents but it was too late.Function of Tragic Flaw Tragic flaw is used for moral purposes, in order to encourage the audience to improve their characters and remove the flaws which could bring their downfall in life. The readers and the audience can identify themselves with the tragic hero, since it imparts feelings of pity and fear among them, thereby completing their catharsis - or in other words, they are purged of bad emotions. Therefore, they can learn a moral lesson so that they might not indulge in similar actions in future.

Tragicomedy

Tragicomedy is a literary device used in fictional works. It contains both tragedy and comedy. Mostly, the characters in tragicomedy are exaggerated, and sometimes there might be a happy ending after a series of unfortunate events. It is incorporated with jokes throughout the story, just to lighten the tone. Examples of Tragicomedy in LiteratureExample #1: The Merchant of Venice (By William Shakespeare)The Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare is considered one of the most popular traditional tragicomedy examples. Though it has a comedic structure, there are tragic characters, such as Shylock (who is a central character), and tragic events, such as Antonio's "loss" of life (because he is not really dead).Although the play ends on a happy note with the union of the lovers in the story, and Antonio is saved from a tragic incident, readers are left with a taste of Shylock's sufferings. Hence, the feeling and mood of the play at the end is neither happy nor gloomy. Though, this play definitely has a comic structure, it also has a strong tragic story. Therefore, it can be classified as a tragicomedy.Example #2: The Cherry Orchard (By Anton Chekhov)Anton Chekhov's play, The Cherry Orchard, turned out to be his final play that has a combination of comedy and tragedy. It is the story of an elite family that is on the verge of losing its inherited estate. As this play is based on an inevitable social change, which came with the dawn of the 20th century, it presents the end of an aristocratic era, blended with tragic and comic elements. The comic elements can be seen in the behavior, humorous aspects, and lack of responsibility of the characters.Example #3: Waiting for Godot (By Samuel Beckett) Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot can also be considered one of the great examples of tragicomedy. There are many gestures, dialogues, actions, and situations that are filled with pure comedy. All types of musical devices have been used to create laughter.The overall atmosphere is that of a dark-comedy. For example, Vladimir is determined not to listen to Estragon's nightmare. However, the latter keeps pleading with him to listen. Similarly, Estragon takes off and puts on his shoes several times while Vladimir plays with his hat again and again. On the other hand, comedy turns into a tragedy due to the haplessness of these tramps. Vladimir and Estragon wait for somebody who does not come, which makes them disappointed. During the course of time, they indulge themselves in meaningless activities.Example #4: The Winter's Tale (By William Shakespeare)Shakespearean tragicomedies have complex and dubious plots. One of his perfect tragicomedies is The Winter's Tale. The first three acts are both tragic and serious, while the final two acts are based on pastoral romance, roguery, songs, humor, and reunion. A sheep-shearing celebration with the elegant, innocent Perdita serving as a hostess, dancing and singing with shepherds, is suggestive of rural life in England. The blend of suffering, sorrows, humor, romance, forgiveness, and reunion in the play confirms its label as a tragicomedy. There are different aspects of the tragicomedy in the play that include: tragic elements, comic elements, romantic elements, and a happy ending.Example #5: The Caretaker (By Harold Pinteris)The Caretaker, written by Harold Pinteris, is mixed with two modes, tragedy and comedy, and is a fine modern example of tragicomedy. The comic elements come out in the monologues of Mick and Davies, and even the interactions between characters sometimes approach farce. Davies' repetition, confusion, and deceit of the brothers makes the play comedic. However, the tragic element appears in the climatic monologue of Anton, regarding his shock treatments, at the end of the play and in "that place," although its ending is somewhat ambiguous.Example #6: Marriage à la Mode (By John Dryden)John Dryden's Marriage à la Mode is a successful comedy that merges two different plots of restoration comedy of manners and romantic tragicomedy. The double plot encompasses the idea that marriage both creates hope and brings regrets, it both opens possibilities and denies opportunities.Function of Tragicomedy The main purpose of tragicomedy is to describe the dual nature of reality, where both modes can coexist, perhaps simultaneously. Therefore, the interweaving of both aspects gives both a comic and tragic view of life. Tragicomedy is mainly used in dramas and theater. Since tragic plays focus exclusively on protagonists, while comic plays are devoid of focus and concern, therefore plays that fell between these two categories were developed. These types of plays present both modes of life through absurdity and seriousness.

Transition

Transitions are words and phrases that provide a connection between ideas, sentences, and paragraphs. Transitions help to make a piece of writing flow better. They can turn disconnected pieces of ideas into a unified whole, and prevent a reader from getting lost in the storyline. Since the goal of a writer is to convey information clearly and concisely, transitions help achieve that aim by providing a logical connection between one or more sections of a piece of writing. Transitions usually work best when used to link one paragraph to the next, and are usually found at the beginning of the paragraph, although they can be used anywhere when needed.Some examples of transition words or phrases include:another key pointindeedin factfirst thing to rememberon the negative sideon the positive sideA piece of writing usually contains two elements: (1) the order in which different parts of a discussion or argument are provided to the readers; and (2) the relationship the writer has used to link these parts together. Transitions cannot be used as a substitute for good organization, but they do aid in making the writing easier and clearer to follow by keeping a constant, consistent flow from one paragraph to the next.Some clues that a writer needs to use transitions include:The written work is choppy, abrupt and jumpy.The writer has moved from one point to the next abruptly and quickly, without a visible connection between the two ideas.The readers have trouble following the writer's train of thought, or organization of ideas.Following is an example of a disjointed paragraph can be made to flow smoothly by the use of transitions:Disjointed Sentence:"We will be here for a few more days so we can finish up some leftover work. We are staying longer because we do not want to miss the Tech Info conference taking place next week."Revised with Transition:"We will be here for a few more days so we can finish up some leftover work. Another reason we are staying longer is because we do not want to miss the Tech Info Conference taking place next week.In the first sentence, the two ideas are abruptly linked without a transition present to connect the two together. In the revised version, the sentences are linked by a transition to connect the two ideas for smoother flow, giving the reader a better understanding of what the writer wanted them to know.Common Locations of Transitions1. Between SectionsIn longer pieces of writing, transitional paragraphs summarize the information for readers, and specify the relevance of the information in the sections to come.2. Between ParagraphsTransitions form a relationship between paragraphs by connecting them with phrases, words, or sentences that can be placed at the end of the first paragraph, the start of the second paragraph, or in both places.3. Within Paragraphs These help the reader anticipate what is to come by serving as cues. Within paragraphs, transitions are usually short phrases or single words.Examples of Transition Example #1:To show contrast between ideas: on the contrary, however, notwithstandingExample #2:To denote time: after, at last, beforeExample #3:To add to the previous point in the essay: furthermore, besides, moreoverExample #4:To show similarity or comparison between ideas: likewise, similarly, in like fashionExample #5:To concede a point in the essay: although, at least, at any rateExample #6:To emphasize a point: indeed, above all, trulyExample #7:To bring attention to detail: especially, specifically, in particularExample #8:To show consequence or a result: with the result that, so that, consequentlyExample #9:To illustrate a point or provide examples: for instance, for example, to illustrateExample #10:To make a suggestion in the essay: to this end, for this purpose, with this in mindExample #11:To sum up the points: finally, therefore, consequentlyFunction of TransitionTransitions can be used in diverse circumstances. A transition can be a word, a phrase, or even an entire paragraph. The function of a transition is the same in each case: it summarizes the content of the preceding paragraph or section, and it helps the reader anticipate what's to come in the next paragraph.However, the major function is not just to embellish one's writing by making it read or sound better; these are words which serve the function of presenting the ideas in such a way that help readers react in particular ways to the ideas presented. They play a very important part in helping readers see the logical sequence of the idea.

Tricolon

Tricolon is a rhetorical term that consists of three parallel clauses, phrases, or words, which happen to come in quick succession without any interruption. The origin of this rhetorical device is traced to the Greek word tricolon, meaning "section of a sentence." These three parallel words, phrases, or clauses have almost the same length, though this condition is not strictly followed. It also refers to a collection of three lines, paragraphs, chapters, or stanzas. For instance, William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar uses it in his famous speech in ascending order as, "Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, [and] I conquered.") The purpose of tricolon is to give a greater sense of roundness, completeness, and wholeness, whereas the third part brings in a surprising effect in the sentence.Popular Examples of Tricolon in Presidential SpeechesExample #1: Barack Obama speaks in Memorial Service for Nelson Mandela, December, 10, 2013"After this great liberator is laid to rest, and when we have returned to our cities and villages and rejoined our daily routines, let us search for his strength. Let us search for his largeness of spirit somewhere inside of ourselves. And when the night grows dark, when injustice weighs heavy on our hearts, when our best-laid plans seem beyond our reach, let us think of Madiba and the words that brought him comfort within the four walls of his cell ..."Example #2: President Dwight Eisenhower, "The Chance for Peace." Speech delivered to the American Society of Newspaper Editors, April, 1953"Every gun that is made, every warship launched, every rocket fired signifies, in the final sense, a theft from those who hunger and are not fed, those who are cold and are not clothed. This world in arms is not spending money alone. It is spending the sweat of its laborers, the genius of its scientists, the hopes of its children."The lines above, highlighted in bold, present examples of tricolon. First is presented by the incumbent President Obama in his 2013 speech, while the second one was given by President Eisenhower in his speech delivered in 1953.Examples of Tricolon in Literature Example #1: The Wizard in The Wizard of Oz (By L. Frank Baum) "You are talking to a man who has laughed in the face of death, sneered at doom, and chuckled at catastrophe."The use of three phrases makes the speaker - or the author - appear knowledgeable, simple, and catchy. It combines clauses to create a powerful impression, emphasizing the point in a memorable and pithy way.Example #2: Pirates of Caribbean (by Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio)"I actually feel rather good about this. I think we've all arrived at a very special place, eh? Spiritually, ecumenically, grammatically."Here the last three words present the use of tricolon. This serves as a powerful rhetorical device, also creating a little humor. The first two clauses make the readers think they are going in one direction, while the third part introduces a surprising twist in it.Example #3: The Naked Civil Servant (by Quentin Crisp)"If you describe things as better than they are, you are considered to be a romantic; if you describe things as worse than they are, you will be called a realist; and if you describe things exactly as they are, you will be thought of as a satirist."The use of tricolon has made this example interesting, funnier, satisfying, and memorable by emphasizing the lines.Example #4: Call for the Dead (by John le Carré)"They liked his diffidence when he apologized for the company he kept, his insincerity when he defended the vagaries of his subordinates, his flexibilities when formulating new commitments."This is another excellent example of tricolon. The use of three equal structures makes it rhythmic and appealing, while also making it more likely the readers will remember the given information.Function of TricolonTricolon is not only found in poetry, novels, and short stories, but also in oral storytelling, advertising, films, and photography. In writing, it helps readers absorb the idea, and remember it more effectively. Sometimes, writers use tricolon for creating a humorous effect. In comedy, it is known as a "comic triple," where it creates a surprising effect for the audience. Besides, many public information slogans and advertising campaigns use it to create a memorable and captivating display of information. However, the most useful aspect of this literary device is its effectiveness in making the idea memorable.

Trimeter

Trimeter is a poetic device that is defined as a meter or a line that consists of three iambic feet. It is one of the five main types of iamb. An iamb is a foot that contains an unaccented syllable followed by an accented syllable. Let us take these lines to understand:"Is like a pleasant sleep,/ Wherein I rest and heed/ The dreams that by me sweep."(The Idle Life I Lead, by Robert Bridges)Apart from poetry, one can also find examples of trimeter in the dialogues of comedic and tragic plays.Types of Iamb MeterTrimeter is one of the five types of iamb meter, which are:Iambic dimeter (contains two iambs in each line)"The way a crowShook down on me..."(Dust of Snow, by Robert Frost)Iambic trimeter (contains three iambs in each line)"I love the jocund dance,The softly breathing song..."(I Love the Jocund Dance, by William Blake)Iambic tetrameter (contains four iambs in each line)"Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,And sorry I could not travel both..."(The Road Not Taken, by Robert Frost)Iambic pentameter (contains five iambs in each line)"Her vestal livery is but sick and greenAnd none but fools do wear it; cast it off."(Romeo and Juliet, by William Shakespeare)Iambic hexameter (contains six iambs in each line)"He had adorned and hid the coming bulk of death..."(Adonais, by Percy Bysshe Shelly)Examples of Trimeter in Literature Example #1: The Only News I Know (By Emily Dickinson)"The only news I knowIs bulletins all dayFrom Immortality.The only shows I see,Tomorrow and Today,Perchance Eternity."This excerpt is a good example of iambic trimeter, in which the lines have three iambs or three metrical feet. Normally, the extract contains six syllables in each line, with the pattern of iambic trimeter. Here, the trimeter pattern is in bold.Example #2: When I Was One-and-Twenty (By E. Housman)"When I was one-and-twentyI heard a wise man say,'Give crowns and pounds and guineasBut not your heart away;Give pearls away and rubiesBut keep your fancy free."But I was one-and-twenty,No use to talk to me."Among the poems that can be considered as good trimeter examples is E. Housman's When I Was One-and-Twenty. Houseman follows a perfect pattern of trimeter in this poem. The pattern lends regular beats and rhythm to the poem.Example #3: My Papa's Waltz (By Theodore Roethke) "We romped until the pansSlid from the kitchen shelf;My mother's countenanceCould not unfrown itself."This whole excerpt is following the pattern of trimeter. The lines are very short. With iamb trimeter, it has a regular pattern and rhythmical sense.Example #4: Verses Supposed to be Written (By Alexander Selkirkby William Cowper)"From the centre all round to the sea,I am lord of the fowl and the brute.Oh, solitude! where are the charms...Better dwell in the midst of alarms...I am out of humanity's reach,I must finish my journey alone,Never hear the sweet music of speech...They are so unacquainted with man,Their tameness is shocking to me..."This poem is a fine example of a combination of iambic trimeter and anapestic meter. At different places trimeter is replaced by anapestic trimeter.Example #5: The Divine Image (By William Blake)"To Mercy, Pity, Peace, and Love,All pray in their distress:And to these virtues of delightReturn their thankfulness."This poem follows an alternating trimeter and iambic tetrameter pattern. The first and third lines represent iambic tetrameter, whereas the second and fourth lines are written in trimeter pattern.Function of TrimeterThe main function of trimeter is to create regular beats and rhythm in a literary text. However, it is also useful to achieve heightened formality in dramas when used as normal speech. Since trimeter creates a regular rhythm, it lends formality and high drama to a text. Hence, the basic purpose of using this pattern is to create a beautiful poetic work, and produce a greatly emotional experience. In addition, it helps to make a piece of art more artistic by producing a regular rhythm. Poetry, comedies, and Greek tragedies often use this device.

Trochaic

Trochaic an adjective of trochee is a metrical foot composed of two syllables; stressed followed by an unstressed syllable. This rhythmic unit is used to make up the lines of poetry. However, it is deliberately inserted to make the text sound different. The material pattern of trochee is composed of "falling rhythm" as the stress is at the beginning of the foot. It, however, plays a great role when writing about dark subjects like madness and death. Etymologically, trochee is derived from a Greek word, "trokhaios" which means 'to run.' Types of Trochaic MeterTrochaic Tetrameter: It is a type of meter consisting of four stressed syllables per line. For example, "By the shores of Gitche Gu".Trochaic Heptamer: It is a type of meter consisting of seven stressed syllables per line. Such as, "Now Sam McGee was from Tennessee, where the cotton blooms and".Trochaic Pentameter: It is a type of meter consisting of five stressed syllables per line. "And the lamp-light o'er him streaming throws his shadow on the floor".Iambic Trimeter: It is a type of meter consisting of three stressed syllables per line. For example, "This has neither wax nor".Catalexis: The absence of a syllable in the final foot in a line is called catalexis.Examples of Trochaic from Literature Example #1The Raven by Edgar Allan PoeAnd the Raven, never flitting, still is sitting, still is sittingOn the pallid bust of Pallas just above my chamber door;And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon's that is dreaming,And the lamp-light o'er him streaming throws his shadow on the floor;And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floorShall be lifted—nevermore!"Written by Edgar Allan Poe, a famous American poet, this poem is a superb composition of a mystery of the arrival of a raven. The poem shows fear, uncertainty, and loneliness of a person, who is a victim of unfortunate circumstances. At the same time, "The Raven" is one of the most well-known trochaic poems ever written. Its lines two, four, five and six end on stressed syllables that break the conventional stressed-unstressed pattern of the trochaic meter. Poe has used catalexis strategy in which he has deliberately dropped the final syllable of a line to create a pause or a rhyme.Example #2Song of the Witches by William Shakespeare"Double, double toil and trouble;Fire burn, and caldron bubble.Scale of dragon; tooth of wolf;Witches' mummy; maw and gulf..."This extract has taken from one of the famous plays of William Shakespeare, Macbeth. The witches sing this song as they intend to curse Macbeth. Though most of Shakespeare's works are written in iambic pentameter, where he has used a trochaic meter to give a strange feeling to the charm, he presents for the witches in this play. This backward stress pattern of the trochaic meter is highly effective to create the blank rhythm widely used in magic words.Example #3 In Memory of W.B. Yeats by W. H. AudenEarth, receive an honoured guest;William Yeats is laid to rest:Let this Irish vessel lieEmptied of its poetry."The poet has expressed his profound sadness over his friend's death. He has skillfully inserted trochaic trimeter in the poem to express his feelings. It is due to the melancholy tone created by the downward emphasis of the trochee that the poet has expressed his grief. However, the unstressed syllable at the end of each line is dropped to create end rhyme in the poem. Also, the dropping of a syllable has created a pause that completes the line in itself.Example #4Sorrow by Edna St. Vincent Millay,Sorrow like a ceaseless rainBeats upon my heart.People twist and scream in pain, —Dawn will find them still again;This has neither wax nor wane,Neither stop nor start."The poem deals with the subject of sorrow. The poet has presented his version of sorrow in contrast with others. However, the poet has used trochaic diameter, emphasizing the conspicuous downward beat of the poet's pensive mood. He has also used catalexis technique to make the rhyme scheme possible. In other words, he has deliberately omitted the last unstressed syllable of each line.Example #5The Song of Hiawatha by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow"Should you ask me, whence these stories?Whence these legends and traditions,With the odors of the forest,With the dew and damp of meadows,With the curling smoke of wigwams,With the rushing of great rivers,With their frequent repetitions,And their wild reverberations,As of thunder in the mountains?"The Song of Hiawatha is a famous epic of English literature and comprises the brave and magical deeds of its hero performed in the pristine American land. It is about his visits with members of the Ojibwe, Black Hawk and other American tribes. However, this poem uses the trochee as a primary metrical foot. Henry has also skillfully used trochaic tetrameter line after line.Trochaic Meter Meaning and FunctionThe trochee is the pause for the audience. It gives them a chance to enjoy a different type of poetry. It also allows them to understand the mood and tone of the poem. Although it is not frequently used in poetry, yet trochaic meter helps elucidate the rolling effect of the verses. Also, the trochaic meter has a powerful forward momentum that usually makes the meter feel incessant. However, its unusual metrical pattern makes it difficult to use.

Trope

Trope is a figure of speech through which speakers or writers intend to express meanings of words differently than their literal meanings. In other words, it is a metaphorical or figurative use of words in which writers shift from the literal meanings of words to their non-literal meanings. The trope, in fact, could be a phrase, a word, or an image used to create artistic effect. We may find its use almost anywhere, such as in literature, political rhetoric, and everyday speech. Types of TropeDepending upon the meanings and understanding of trope, it has been classified into several types. Some of its types include, irony, hyperbole, metaphor, allegory, litotes, pun, personification, simile, metonymy, and synecdoche. Here are some examples of the types of trope:Example #1: Romeo & Juliet (By William Shakespeare)IronyIrony is used to imply an opposite meaning to the literal meaning of an idea, such as in the opening lines of Romeo & Juliet:"Two households, both alike in dignity..."Shakespeare leads the audience to believe that Montague and Capulet are both respectful families. However, as the narrative proceeds, we realize that both families were not noble. Many of their actions were not worthy of their good positions in society. Hence, Shakespeare has used irony to develop this situation.Example #2: A Red, Red Rose (By Robert Burns) HyperboleThis type of trope uses exaggerated statement for effect or emphasis. It is contrary to understatement and, like metaphor and simile, is overstated and ridiculous. We usually find its usage in oral communication and literature, such as:"As fair art thou, my bonnie lass,So deep in luve am I;And I will love thee still, my dear,Till a' the seas gang dry.Till a' the seas gang dry, my dear,And the rocks melt wi' the sun:O I will love thee still, my dear,While the sands o' life shall run."In this poem, the poet uses hyperbole by overstating his love for his beloved, that he would love her until the seas dry, and rocks melt with the sun. In fact, the poet has used exaggeration to emphasize the power of his love.Example #3: To His Coy Mistress (By Andrew Marvell)LitotesThis type of trope is opposite to hyperbole in that it is an understatement that negates its opposite."The grave's a fine a private place,But none, I think, do there embrace."In these lines, the poet tries to understate the idea that he is unable to have sex with his beloved in this world, and suggests the opposite idea of having it in coffins where they could have privacy. However, there would be no hugging at all.Example #4: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)MetonymyMetonymy is a type of trope in which an alternative name takes the place of the name of an original idea, while both are closely associated. As in William Shakespeare's Hamlet, we can find use of metonymy many times, such as the ghost of Hamlet's father referring to his assassin:"The serpent that did sting thy father's life."In another case, we see when Polonius advises his son Laertes to"Give every man thy ear, but few they voice."This means to imply that he should pay attention to what others say, speaking little.Example #5: The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock (By T. S. Eliot)SynecdocheSynecdoche is a type of trope in which a part of a thing or idea represents the whole thing. T. S. Eliot uses this figure of speech several times in his poem The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock. The poet uses faces as a synecdoche in this line:"To prepare a face to meet the faces that you meet ..."Here, the "face" represents the entire person. Again, he use eyes as a synecdoche in these lines:"And I have known the eyes already, known them all —The eyes that fix you in a formulated phrase ..."Where, the eyes are a small part that represent the whole person. Then, he makes use of arms as a synecdoche to represent a whole woman as:"And I have known the arms already ...Arms that lie along a table, or wrap about a shawl."Function of Trope Since trope is a figurative expression, its major function is to give additional meaning to the texts, and allow readers to think profoundly, to understand the idea or a character. Also, it creates images that produce artistic effects on the audience's senses. Through trope, writers intensify normal human feelings into extraordinary emotions, where they feel that those emotions are not ordinary. Additionally, most types of trope present comparisons that make the understanding of the text easier for readers.

Truism

Truism is a literary device defined as a statement that is based on self-evidence or factual evidence. and is accepted as an obvious truth in a way that further proof is not considered necessary. It is also that a contradicting statement would be considered as illogical, since truism is agreed to be truth. It is mostly used as a rhetorical device in philosophy, specifically in logic. Several statements and aphorisms are also examples of truism when they present a universally accepted opinion, and when a majority of the people agree with them. Platitudes, clichés, and bromides are some truism examples.Examples of Truism in LiteratureExample #1: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles)Jocasta:"(The oracle) told himthat it was his fate that he should die a victimat the hands of his own son, a son to be bornof Laius and me ..."Oedipus:"That I was fated to lie with my mother,and show to daylight an accursed breedwhich men would not endure, and I was doomedto be murderer of the father that begot me ..."In this excerpt, Jocasta recollects the prophecy that the oracle mentioned to King Laius before the birth of Oedipus. In the second paragraph, Oedipus also reveals that prophecy, and hence leaves Corinth. These statements are the perfect examples of truism, where the fact is obvious and nobody can deny it.Example #2: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)"O, that this too too solid flesh would meltThaw and resolve itself into a dew!Or that the Everlasting had not fix'dHis cannon 'gainst self-slaughter! O God! God!How weary, stale, flat and unprofitable, ...Hyperion to a satyr; so loving to my motherThat he might not beteem the winds of heavenVisit her face too roughly. Heaven and earth!Must I remember? why, she would hang on him..."This is Hamlet's famous soliloquy, and it is a good example of truism. Hamlet was enraged at his mother for marrying his uncle after the death of the king a month previous. He is expressing his feelings of dejection for his mother's greed.Example #3: Mourning Becomes Electra (By Eugene O'Neil) Mannon:"He pushes his back up against the head of the bed in a half sitting position. His face, with the flickering candle light... You like the dark where you can't see your old man of a husband, is that it ... I don't know... This house is not my house. This is not my room nor my bed. They are empty... And you are not my wife! You are waiting for something ... You made me appear a lustful beast in my own eyes... I would feel cleaner now if I had gone to a brothel! I would feel more honor between myself and life..."In this extract, Mannon is talking to his wife Christine, and gives self-evident statements. He talks about his wife's unfaithfulness to him. This is a truism based on accepted truth that his wife has had an affair.Example #4: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)Prince:"Let Romeo hence in haste,Else, when he's found, that hour is his last.Bear hence this body and attend our will.Mercy but murders, pardoning those that kill."In this excerpt, Prince is angry due to Romeo's killing of Tybalt, and says that he must leave the city. Here the statement of truism is used as he later says:"Showing mercy to murderers would create more killers or murderers."Example #5: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens)"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair."Here, the double meanings of the "best of times" and the "worst of times" indicate the theme of resurrection, and also indicate the conflict between England and France. These statements are expressing truism.Function of Truism Truism is a specific category of truth, platitude, or cliché, and is used as evidence. It is used as an agreed or intuitive truth about life, since the majority of people accept it, and arguments are so perfect that readers do not ask questions. It is also used in literature and philosophical writings where it serves an ironic purpose.

Undertone

Undertone is an attitude that lies under the ostensible tone of a literary work. In simple words, it is an implied meaning that usually points towards the underlying theme of a work. It is because mostly writers do not express it directly as their attitude or theme; rather, they do it by using images or symbols. Therefore, sometimes it becomes difficult to identify undertones. Examples of Undertone in LiteratureExample #1: Cherry Orchard (by Anton Chekhov)In Anton Chekhov's "Cherry Orchard," there are several undertones, including time, contrasting regions, morality, and love. Although it is a tragic-comedy, it is full of love triangles, unrequited love, physical love, spiritual love, platonic love, maternal love, and master and servant love. Also, there is a very prominent undertone of mortality. For instance, the memory of her dead husband and son haunts, Lubov. The departing family depicts its beloved home as "at the end of its life."Example #2: The Lord of the Rings (by J.R.R. Tolkien)The undertone in The Lord of the Rings is fundamentally Catholic and religious, unconsciously at first, and consciously in revision, because by design, it is about Catholic and Christian truths. For instance, the protagonists in the novel pursue absolutes, rejecting willingness to relativize or compromise. There is an absoluteness of right and wrong in Middle-earth. We do not see any moral clue of relativism that separates different races, people, and creators of free lands. The protagonists also embrace suffering as an essential element of their salvation. They must sacrifice to get freedom from tyranny of evil.Example #3: Hamlet (by William Shakespeare) The deceptive undertone in "Hamlet" is a fear of being deceived. After two consistent appearances of the Ghost, Horatio joins Bernado, Marcellus, and Francisco on an evening watch on the third night. Horatio mocks their stories about the appearances of the Ghost by saying, "Tush tush, 'twill not appear."He is a sensible and intelligent person who wants to see things himself before accepting them. Therefore, at the appearance of the Ghost, he immediately changes his point of view. He informs Prince Hamlet of the Ghost's resemblance to King Hamlet and warns him of its origin. Thus, Hamlet fears that this Ghost might be just a deception and appears to push Hamlet to go for a wicked action.Example #4: The Great Gatsby (by F. Scott Fitzgerald)"...I was standing beside his bed and he was sitting up between the sheets, clad in his underwear, with a great portfolio in his hands.'Beauty and the beast... Loneliness... Old Grocery Horse... Brook'n Bridge'Then I was lying half asleep in the cold lower level of the Pennsylvania Station, staring at the morning 'Tribune' and waiting for the four o'clock train."With Nick Caraway, Fitzgerald has portrayed an undertone of homosexuality. This scene is the period of four hours between Nick's departure from the party and waiting for the train. Nick sees Mackee as a feminine man, feels attraction towards him, and follows him to his bed room while Mackee sleeps.Example #5: The Tyger (by William Blake)In his poem, "The Tyger," Blake has used religious undertones. In his days, religious institutions and individuals held a great influence over people. He has questioned absolute supremacy of God and dabbled into the religious arena through this poem, by employing the image of a tiger.Blake is not afraid to challenge the religious assumptions. In the first two lines, he praises this animal a work of art, which is strikingly beautiful, "Tyger Tyger, burning bright ..." But the tiger also symbolizes horror. That is in the third and the fourth lines he questions, "What immortal hand or eye / Could frame thy fearful symmetry?" which means what kind of God could design a beautiful yet terrifying and horrible beast, a Tyger.Function Undertone adds depth to a literary work. Not only does it enhance writing, but it also develops interest of the readers to get an insight into the mind of a writer. Failing to convince their readers of their themes, writers and poets substitute direct persuasion with skeptical undertone of teaching. Just like tone, it could be cheery, fearful, threatening, or optimistic, etc. Besides that, it gives the readers an understanding of the characters, their emotions, and conflicts in a literary piece.

Verbal Irony

Verbal irony occurs when a speaker speaks something contradictory to what he intends to say. It is an intentional product of the speaker, and is contradictory to his/her emotions and actions. To define it simply, it occurs when a character uses a statement with underlying meanings that contrast with its literal meaning; it shows that the writer has used verbal irony. Writers rely on the audience's intelligence for discerning the hidden meanings they intend to convey. Writers also use ironic similes to convey exactly the opposite of what they intend to say, such as "soft as concrete." Types of Verbal IronySarcasmExaggeration or OverstatementUnderstatementExamples of Verbal Irony from Literature Example #1: Romeo & Juliet (By William Shakespeare)"Again and again he tried after the tempting morsel, but at last had to give it up, and walked away with his nose in the air, saying: 'I am sure they are sour.' ""I will not marry yet; and, when I do, I swear it shall be Romeo, whom you know I hate, rather than Paris."Juliet does not like the decision of her father to marry with Paris, whom she dislikes and instead adores Romeo. Hence, she makes a decision to marry Romeo and tells her mother about it ironically that whenever she would marry, it would be Romeo - whom she dislikes - and not Paris, thus confusing her mother.Example #2: Pride & Prejudice (By Jane Austen)"She is tolerable but not handsome enough to tempt me."We can find many fine examples of verbal irony in Pride and Prejudice. In this example, we relish ironic flavor of Darcy's statement, as we later find out that the woman he found unsuitable to dance with, ends up taking a place in his heart.Example #3: The Unknown Citizen (By W. H. Auden) The title of the poem, The Unknown Citizen, employs verbal irony, as the poet describes a person whom everyone knows, yet he is still unknown. Also, by deliberately capitalizing common words, the speaker makes them sound meaningless, ironic, and sarcastic: "the Greater Community," "Social Psychology," "Union," "Public Opinion," and "High Grade Living." All of these terms sound formal, pompous, bureaucratic, and arrogant. Simply, through verbal irony, the poet shows how governmental agencies, which should serve human beings, have rather enslaved them.Example #4: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles)TIRESIAS:"You are all ignorant. I will not reveal the troubling things inside me, which I can call your grief as well."OEDIPUS:"Do you intend to betray me and destroy the city?"All types of ironies are prevalent throughout the entire play, Oedipus Rex. One fine example of verbal irony occurs when Tiresias refuses to reveal the prophecy to Oedipus.In fact, Oedipus has misunderstood Tiresias' statement, "... which I can call your grief as well." By this, Tiresias means that, if he reveals the truth, it would become Oedipus' grief that he is the murderer of his king, Laius. This is a verbal irony which Oedipus fails to realize that this "grief" is going to be an impending fate for him.Example #5: A Modest Proposal (By Jonathan Swift)"I rather recommend buying the children alive and dressing them hot from the knife, as we do roasting pigs."Verbal irony is a dominant literary device in this novel by Swift. For instance, in the above statement the author intends to point out that the government should not treat Irish people like animals. In irony, he compares the Irish to animals.Example #6: Lemony Snicket: The Unauthorized Autobiography (By Lemony Snicket)"Today was a very cold and bitter day, as cold and bitter as a cup of hot chocolate; if the cup of hot chocolate had vinegar added to it and were placed in a refrigerator for several hours."Snicket uses verbal irony by employing ironic simile. Then, he proceeds to break down this simile, by overturning its meaning. By making a complex structure, the author creates verbal irony to let readers enjoy.Functions of Verbal IronyVerbal irony is very common in everyday speech, plays, novels, and poetry, and usually occurs in the form of sarcasm. It depends upon timing and suitable circumstances to achieve its effect. Verbal irony develops funny and dramatic situations. Through verbal irony, writers and poets can convey their bitter messages indirectly, in a less bitter and more effective way. It makes a literary piece more effective by provoking readers into analyzing and thinking harder about a situation. By contrasting and comparing suppositions with reality, the readers can better understand the writer's intent.

Vernacular

Vernacular is a literary genre that uses daily-used language in writing and speaking. It is different from written works, as they normally follow the formal variety of language. The word "vernacular" refers to writing or speaking of the public. We find the origin of vernacular literature during the Middle Ages, in various countries of Europe. In fact, Latin was the language of historical documents and religion, and ordinary people would not even speak it in Medieval Europe, like that of the Sanskrit language in India. However, the writers of vernacular language, such as Dante, Geoffrey Chaucer and Mark Twain. Dante Alighieri, diverged from this tendency by writing in the language of ordinary people. Vernacular vs. DialectVernacular is the use of ordinary, everyday, and plain language in speaking or writing, such as corn is a common name of a plant, and its scientific name is "maize," or "zea mays." Dialect is related to a particular region, geographical area, a particular social class, or an occupational group. Also, it uses a distinguished pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. For instance, people in Shanghai have a different pronunciation or dialect than those in Yunnan.Examples of Vernacular in Literature Example #1: The Canterbury Tales (By Geoffrey Chaucer)"Whan that Aprille, with hise shoures soote,The droghte of March hath perced to the rooteAnd bathed every veyne in swich licour,Of which vertu engendred is the flour;"In these opening lines, Chaucer has used words from the Middle English, which is a very different language. The poet has employed a vernacular style in the words such as "whan," "Aprille," "soote," "droghte," "roote," "veyne," "licour," and "flour."Example #2: A Clockwork Orange (By Anthony Burgess)Anthony Burgess uses vernacular language in his novel, A Clockwork Orange. Although Burgess has made the base of his novel with English, he used vernacular words from Russian, Arabic, Gypsy, and English. He formed a different language style of its own that managed to portray the state of mind of the character Alex, as well as cruelty of the world around him in which he lived.Burgess uses words such as "eggiweg," which means "eggs" in English, describes the childlike nature of Alex, who often exhibits it. Another word is, "moloko," which means "milk blended with drugs," which shows a dark side of Alex, characterized by demonic and criminal overtones. Other terms include "baboochka," which means "old woman," and "Bog," which means "God."Example #3: Boxy an Star (By Daren King) "We me an Star are waitin for Boxy his head. Waitin standin in the fone box in the station of Wolfer Humpton holdin the letter what we have tapped in the number from. Tappin the number what Boxy had typed on the letter. Tappin it in on the fone pad. Tappin it makin Boxy come on the screen of the fone makin on the screen of the fone his head."This novel is a perfect example of using futuristic vernacular. Its language is hypnotic and disturbing, unrefined and vernacular, yet effective and proper. Here the author's words are expressing brevity, directness, childlike effect, and honesty.Example #4: Trainspotting (By Irvine Welsh)"Suppose that ah ken aw the pros and cons, know that ah'm gaunnae huv a short life...but still want tae use smack? They won't let ye dae it. They won't let ye dae it, because it's seen as a sign ay thir ain failure. The fact that ye jist simply choose tae reject whut they huv tae offer. Choose us. Choose life. Choose mortgage payments; choose washing machines; choose cars; choose sitting oan a couch watching mind-numbing and spirit-crushing game shows..."It takes time to know the rhythm of this book, as it is rich with Scottish vernacular, and slang words, which make its tone lilting.Function of VernacularThe use of vernacular is everywhere - in schools, university courses, at home, offices, in law terms, medicine, and the media. In fact, language is a starting point for any literary work, and if it is ineffective, then readers cannot get anything from the work. Vernacular is one of the literary techniques that can strike a chord with the majority of the people, makes a strong connection with them because it is closer to their everyday conversation. Also, the dialogues and phrases often reinforce the setting of a narrative, and add depth by creating a sense of realism, allowing readers to relate their real lives with a literary piece.

Vignette

Vignette is a small impressionistic scene, an illustration, a descriptive passage, a short essay, a fiction or nonfiction work focusing on one particular moment; or giving an impression about an idea, character, setting, mood, aspect, or object. Vignette is neither a plot nor a full narrative description, but a carefully crafted verbal sketch that might be part of some larger work, or a complete description in itself. Literally, vignette is a French word that means "little vine." The printers, during the nineteenth-century, would decorate their title pages with drawings of looping vines. Hence, the derivation of this term is that source of drawings. Contemporary ideas from the scenes shown in television and film scripts also have influenced vignettes.Examples of Vignette in LiteratureExample #1: In Our Time (By Ernest Hemingway)"Maera lay still, his head on his arms, his face in the sand. He felt warm and sticky from the bleeding. Each time he felt the horn coming. Sometimes the bull only bumped him with his head. Once the horn went all the way through him and he felt it go into the sand ... Maera felt everything getting larger and larger and then smaller and smaller. Then it got larger and larger and larger and then smaller and smaller. Then everything commenced to run faster and faster as when they speed up a cinematograph film. Then he was dead."In this impressionistic sketch, the author gives an illustration of the character Maera, who is a bullfighter that dies from injures inflicted by a bull.Example #2: An American Childhood (By Annie Dillard)"Some boys taught me to play football. This was fine sport. You thought up a new strategy for every play and whispered it to the others. You went out for a pass, fooling everyone. Best, you got to throw yourself mightily at someone's running legs ... In winter, in the snow, there was neither baseball nor football, so the boys and I threw snowballs at passing cars. I got in trouble throwing snowballs, and have seldom been happier since."In this excerpt, Dillard has used her personal experiences while growing up in Pittsburgh, and describes the nature of American life. In this particular scene, she tells us how she learned to play football with the boys, and offering this incident of her teenage years.Example #3: Railroads (By E. B. White) "The strong streak of insanity in railroads, which accounts for a child's instinctive feeling for them and for a man's unashamed devotion to them, is congenital; there seems to be no reason to fear that any disturbing improvement in the railroads' condition will set in ... He gravely wrote 'Providence' in the proper space, and we experienced anew the reassurance that rail travel is unchanged and unchanging, and that it suits our temperament perfectly - a dash of lunacy, a sense of detachment, not much speed, and no altitude whatsoever."In this descriptive passage, White laments the bad condition of the passenger train industry in the state of Main, his home state, and worries for the future. He softens his complaints by going into past memories when he would ride as an adult.Example #4: House on Mango Street (By Sandra Cisneros)"Then Uncle Nacho is pulling and pulling my arm and it doesn't matter how new the dress Mama bought is because my feet are ugly until my uncle who is a liar says, "You are the prettiest girl here, will you dance ... My uncle and me bow and he walks me back in my thick shoes to my mother who is proud to be my mother. All night the boy who is a man watches me dance. He watched me dance."This whole story provides us a collection of vignettes. There are several passages with detailed descriptions about particular ideas or characters, such as this extract illustrating a dancing scene.Function of Vignette We often find vignettes in creative writing, as it provides description to achieve an artistic effect. However, we also see its usage in prose and poetry. Writers use this device to explore a character, and describe the setting of a scene. Vignettes give deeper understanding of texts, as writers densely pack them with imagery and symbolism. Besides, it increases writers' language proficiency, as they use their language to its fullest by employing imagery to set a certain color and mood. Hence, the nature of vignettes is evocative and puts an impact on the senses of readers.

Epitaph

When somebody from our family, or a friend dies, we want to commemorate his or her memory. For this, we use an epitaph, which is a brief writing or saying inscribed on a grave. Generally, it is a brief composition, having figurative sense in a verse or in prose form, written to pay tribute to a deceased person, or to remember a past event. Strictly speaking, an epitaph is a short text on a plaque or tombstone, honoring a dead person. It is derived from the Greek word epitaphios, which means "funeral oration." Many poets and authors, such as William Shakespeare, Sylvia Plath, Oscar Wilde, and John Keats have written their own epitaphs prior to their deaths.Epitaph and EulogyAn epitaph and a eulogy have a similar function, which is to pay tribute to the dead. However, they are also different, as an epitaph is a brief and concise commemorative inscription engraved on the tombstone of a dead person; while a eulogy is a spoken or piece written in praise of a dead person, usually given at the funeral. A eulogy may also be used for a living person, as it incorporates stories, anecdotes, and memories of the individual. An epitaph, on the other hand, is just an honoring poem or an inscription written on the tombstone.Examples of Epitaph in Literature The use of epitaph flourished during the seventeenth century when writers struggled over the cultural significance of their dead ones. However, later in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, many ways were adopted to validate its importance and, therefore, renowned writers wrote their epitaphs before their death. Here we have a list of some good epitaphs:Example #1: Oscar Wilde's EpitaphWilde's epitaph is inscribed on his gravestone in a very sentimental verse. It reads:"And alien tears will fill for him,Pity's long-broken urn,For his mourners will be outcast men,And outcasts always mourn."This epitaph is from his popular poem The Ballad of Reading Gaol. The poem describes that death is also like a prison sentence. Further, he adds a witty statement that in the grave "the food in here is awful."Example #2: Robert Frost's EpitaphRobert Frost wrote his epitaph a few years prior to his death. He took the last lines from the poem The Lesson for Today, which read as:"And were an epitaph to be my storyI'd have a short one ready for my own.I would have written of me on my stone:I had a lover's quarrel with the world."Unfortunately, most of lovers cannot make up their love. However, Frost was nearly close to being done with his love, when he passed away at the age of 88. This quote gives an apt presentation by the poet.Example #3: William Butler Yeats' Epitaph Yeats in penned his epitaph, which reads:"Cast a cold EyeOn Life, on Death.Horseman, pass by!"It seems that he is giving advice to his readers to not hang back over his corpse for a very long time, nevertheless the words have rather deep meaning. He had taken these lines from the poem Under Ben Bulben. This is one of the most popular modern epitaphs.Example #4: William Shakespeare's Epitaph"Good friend for Jesus' sake forebeare,To dig the dust enclosed here.Blessed be the man that spares these stones,And cursed be he that moves my bones."Shakespeare had given a prediction that somebody might dig up his grave and, due to this fear, he composed his epitaph in verse form before his death. This poem is chiseled on his gravestone.Example #5: Sylvia Plath's EpitaphSylvia Plath's husband, Ted Hughes, had chosen her epitaph, which is engraved on her gravestone. It reads:"Even amidst fierce flames, the golden lotus can be planted."Function of EpitaphThe major function of writing an epitaph is to praise and pay tribute to a deceased person. It is used to provide an example of virtue and goodness, how a tomb of the good people could serve to provide a sense of their presence. In addition, a veneration of a dead person's memories could produce similar effects, as we would see in his or her presence. Another function is to let the audience know and warn them that their lives are also mortal like their predecessors. Finally, it preserves history, as it shows ancestral relationships, dates of birth and death, and accomplishments of the deceased persons.

Perspective

While reading a fiction or non-fiction book, readers see and experience the events and feelings about the characters through a certain point of view, which is called a "perspective." A perspective is a literary tool, which serves as a lens through which readers observe characters, events, and happenings. A writer may narrate the story from his perspective, or from a character's perspective. Its purpose is to make the voice of a writer distinctive from other writers. Types of PerspectiveFirst Person PerspectiveFirst person perspective means writing from the perspective of the author or main character. Such types of perspectives are mostly found in narratives and autobiographical writings. In these writings, the main character narrates his/her story, and uses first person pronouns, such as "I" and "we." The readers see everything through this person's eyes.Examples of First Person Perspective in LiteratureExample #1: To Kill a Mockingbird (By Harper Lee)"It was times like these when I thought my father, who hated guns and had never been to any wars, was the bravest man who ever lived."Example #2: Jane Eyre (By Charlotte Bronte)"I could not unlove him now, merely because I found that he had ceased to notice me."Example #3: Gulliver's Travels (By Jonathan Swift) "I cannot but conclude that the Bulk of your Natives, to be the most pernicious Race of little odious Vermin that Nature ever suffered to crawl upon the Surface of the Earth."In these examples, the authors have used first person personal pronouns to express themselves. This perspective shows the inner feelings and thinking of the individuals.Second Person PerspectiveSecond person perspective uses "you" perspective or a writer tells the story by using second person personal pronouns, like "you" and "your."Examples of Second Person Perspective in LiteratureExample #4: Pilgrim at Tinker Creek (By Annie Dillard)"You are a sculptor. You climb a great ladder; you pour grease all over a growing longleaf pine. Next, you build a hollow cylinder like a cofferdam around the entire pine, and grease its inside walls. You climb your ladder and spend the next week pouring wet plaster into the cofferdam... Now open the walls of the dam, split the plaster, saw down the tree, remove it, discard, and your intricate sculpture is ready: this is the shape of part of the air."This expression is not very common in writing. However, here you can see how the "you" perspective captures readers' attention right from the beginning of the excerpt, giving an impression of a dialogue between the speaker and readers.Third Person Perspective The third person perspective uses he, she, it and they personal pronouns. It is a very common method of narration.Examples of Third Person Perspective in LiteratureExample #5: 1984 (By Annie Dillard)"It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen."Example #6: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen)"He is just what a young man ought to be," said she, "sensible, good humored, lively; and I never saw such happy manners! — so much ease, with such perfect good breeding!Example #7: Paul Clifford (By Edward George Bulwer-Lytton)"It was a dark and stormy night; the rain fell in torrents, except at occasional intervals, when it was checked by a violent gust of wind which swept up the streets."In each of these examples, readers can only know what is happening but cannot know the feelings and thoughts of the characters.Types of Third Person PerspectiveThird Person Perspective has three major types, including:Third Person Objective - An impersonal recorder or neutral observer narrates the facts or details to the readers.Third Person Omniscient - In third person omniscient, a narrator reports the facts, as well as interpreting and relating the thoughts of a character. It is a very popular technique of storytelling, such as in George Eliot's Middle March, and E. B. White's Charlotte's Web.Third Person Limited - In this type of perspective, a narrator reports and interprets the facts and events from a single character's perspective. For instance, Katherine Mansfield has used the same perspective in her short story Miss Brill.Function of Perspective Perspective is the most important literary tool for writers. Choosing an effective perspective helps them create the right voice for their narratives. When readers can identify with their narrators, they can get detailed information about everything. Perspective also adds dimension to literary works. Furthermore, the writers often mix different viewpoints between alternating characters, scenes and events.

Digression

While reading a narrative, a reader comes across several sudden interruptions in the main action of the story, which provides him background information, establish his interest, describes a character's motivation, and builds suspense. These interruptions are called "digressions." A digression is a stylistic device authors employ to create a temporary departure from the main subject of the narrative, to focus on apparently unrelated topics, explaining background details. However, after this temporary shift, authors return to the main topic at the end of the narrative. Examples of Digression in LiteratureExample #1: Iliad (By Homer)Homer is one of the earliest users of digression during the Grecian Era. He uses digressions in Iliad to provide the readers with a break from the main narrative, offering background information and enhancing verisimilitudes of the story. For instance, in Book 11, Homer uses a small digression when Agamemnon encounters the brothers Hippolokhos and Peisandros in a battle. When they come to Agamemnon as suppliants, he reminds them that their father once denied emissaries of Menelaos. Homer employs it as a short interlude that provides the readers a serious note on the nature of rivalries and the beginnings of war.Example #2: The Catcher in the Rye (By J. D. Salinger)J. D. Salinger's novel The Catcher in the Rye is rich with digression. Many thought patterns of Holden Caulfield in the novel seem to be straying from the main topic, and hence unrelated. However, these digressions are relevant and important for the main topic, as they allow readers to gain insight into this character. For instance, his statements about the intelligence of his sister, followed by a description of how carefully she listens, reveals Holding's concerns.Another example of digression is his tension about the nuns. Although he enjoyed discussion, he was worried about being asked whether he is a Catholic or not. This shows his tension for being judged morally and ethically, and his associations with moralists, who look down upon those who hide such realities from them.Example #3: Oliver Twist (By Charles Dickens) "If it did not come strictly within the scope and bearing of my long-considered intentions and plans regarding this prose epic ... to leave the two old gentlemen sitting with the watch between them long after it grew too dark to see it ... I shall not enter into any such digression in this place: and, if this be not a sufficient reason for this determination, I have a better, and indeed, a wholly unanswerable on, already stated; which is, that it forms no part of my original intention to do so."Dickens launches a lengthy discussion to show how the plot is progressing. This excerpt is a perfect instance of breaks and digressions in the story, reminding the readers this is not a real story but a novel, which keeps a distance between readers and characters.Example #4: Odyssey (By Homer)Homer's Odyssey also contains several interludes and digressions, which take readers away from the main action of the story. Despite that, these digressions are thematically connected to the main narrative, namely Odysseus' journey to home and his several encounters during this journey. The poem's style ranges from comic and conversational, to pithy, compact, and abstruse. For instance, the poem uses similes, comparing one event or action to another situation or happening in an elaborate or extended manner. For instance, the poet compares a squid clinging to a rock to Odysseus holding to his boat.Function of Digression The main function of digression is to provide a description of characters, give background information, establish interest, and create suspense for the readers. However, these functions vary from author to author. Some use it to provide scholarly background, while others use it to prevent confusion of illusions in a narrative.Another function is to emphasize or illustrate an idea through anecdotes or examples, and establish a channel through which authors satirize a person or place. Besides these, many authors fear that if they do not digress from the main topic, naïve readers might not be able to differentiate between the reality and fiction. The reason is that some topics are close to reality, such as poverty, strained relationships, and crime. Hence, they use it to put a check on their audience's sympathetic identification with certain characters.

Wit

Wit has originated from an old English term wit, which means "to know." It is a literary device used to make the readers laugh. Over the years, its meanings have kept changing. Today, it is associated with laughter and comedy. It is, in fact, a clever expression of thought; whether harmless or aggressive, with or without any disparaging intent toward something or someone. Wit has paradoxical and mocking quality, and evokes laughter through apt phrasing. It is a cleverly woven expression and idea that evokes pleasure and amusement when used appropriately. Wit has historically been a specific sign of a cultivated intellect and mind. It was often found in poetry, but stage plays were also full of wit, specifically during the Restoration Period. In modern times, wit is a hallmark of political and social writings.Examples of Wit in LiteratureExample #1: The Good Morrow (by John Donne)"My face in thine eye, thine in mine appears,And true plain hearts do in the faces rest;Where can we find two better hemispheres,Without sharp north, without declining west?Whatever dies, was not mixed equally;If our two loves be one, or, thou and ILove so alike, that none do slacken, none can die."John Donne has used plenty of wit and conceit in this poem. He has presented a comparison between his beloved and two hemispheres which form the earth. This unusual comparison between the speaker and his beloved makes the reader feel pleased, making it a good example of the use of wit in a poem.Example #2: Canto-I, The Rape of the Lock (by Alexander Pope)"The Rape of the Lock" has an abundance of scintillating and sparkling wit. In fact, through his wit, Alexander Pope has made a comic assault on a society preoccupied with superficialities. It is a witty satire that ridicules idleness, laziness, follies, frivolities, shallowness, hypocrisy, and vanities of aristocratic ladies of the eighteenth century. He gives his readers an amusing picture of the ladies of his time."Say what strange motive, goddess! could compelA well-bred lord to assault a gentle belle?O say what stranger cause, yet unexplored,Could make a gentle belle reject a lord?In tasks so bold, can little men engage?And in soft bosoms dwells such mighty rage?"In this example, Pope brings into question whether "little men" can engage the boldness of women - in whose bosoms is found great anger. Only Pope could have coined this wit.Example #3: The Importance of Being Earnest (by Oscar Wilde) The dialogues in Oscar Wilde's play, The Importance of Being Earnest, are full of wit, paradoxical twists, epigrams, and humor. For instance, the character Algernon Moncrieff delivers a witty statement that "Divorces are made in heaven," which is an amendment of another statement, "Marriages are made in heaven." A saying that "Two is company and three is none" flows into another naughty implication, "In married life three is company and two is none." The character, John "Jack" Worthing, also uses witty statements in speaking to Algernon, saying that "Some aunts are tall, some aunts are not tall. You seem to think that every aunt should be exactly like your aunt."Example #4: A Modest Proposal (by Jonathan Swift)A Modest Proposal by Jonathan Swift is another good example of sharp wit and biting sarcasm. His proposal is brief, in that the government of Ireland can resolve its economic problems by allowing poor families to sell their children as a source of food for the wealthy. By doing this, Swift suggests, the impoverished families could be useful to society.Swift delivers sarcastic and witty statements against landlords by saying, "I grant this food will be somewhat dear, and therefore very proper for the landlords, who, as they have already devoured most of the parents, seem to have the best title to the children."Function Wit is frequently used in literature, public speeches, media, politics, everyday conversation, and many other fields of life. An inferior form of wit lies in the use of word play, oxymorons, puns, and paradoxes, whereas higher wit appears in the use of conceits, metaphors, and arguments. By intelligent wit, writers mock the social foibles and follies of society; often using paradoxical expressions, which appear to appreciate those foibles, but, in fact, they are disparaging.

Slang

Words that are not a part of standard vocabulary or language, and which are used informally, are called "slang." These words are more commonly used in speech than in writing. Every culture and every region across the globe has its own slang. Some of these include American slang, Costa Rican slang, Spanish slang and South African slang. European English regions, such as Wales, Ireland, and Scotland also have their own slang.Examples of Slang in LiteratureExample #1:They all sat wondering how they were going to attack the enemy with the water balloon. One of the little boys finally suggested, "I can run up on him from behind that tree, jump right on him, and Bob's your uncle - mission accomplished!"The slang term used in this sentence is "Bob's your uncle," which means "there you have it." This phrase found its origin when, in 1887, British Prime Minister Robert Gascoyne-Cecil appointed his nephew, Arthur Balfour, to the seat of Minister for Ireland. Balfour referred to his uncle as "Uncle Bob," and the people decided it was a simple matter to be proclaimed Prime Minister if "Bob's your uncle." This slang is mostly used by British citizens.Example #2:"Last night was flop. I was supposed to go to a party with my friends, but they flopped on me. They are all such floppers."Here the slang term being used is "flop," which means a planned event does not happen. A "flopper" is someone who cancels the plans at the last minute.Example #3: "I'm so upset about my birthday party pictures. My brother is making faces behind me in every picture, what a photo bomb!"In the sentence above, "photo bomb" is the slang term. This is when a person or an object accidentally or intentionally appears in the background of a photo and as a result, ruins it.Example #4:"I got a job promotion even though I don't go to work half the time. I'm so sick."Here, the slang term used is "sick," which literally means "ill." However, in slang it refers to something being awesome or cool. This type of slang terminology is mostly used by teenagers.Example #5:"I can't believe she went and told my father about everything just to get me in trouble, what a hater."The slang term used here is "hater," which refers to someone who is jealous or angry towards another person because of their success.Example #6:"The students caught cheating on the test were given the third-degree by the principal."The slang used in the sentence above is "third-degree," which means "to be interrogated."Example #7:"I can't believe my life has passed so quickly. Now that I am in the hospital, I'll probably just kick the bucket here."The slang being used here is "kick the bucket," which means to die. Some people believe that this term is derived from the historical practice of having a person sentenced to hanging stand on a bucket - rope tied around his neck. The bucket was then kicked out from under his feet, leaving him hanging by the neck.Example #8:"The kids were ready to bite my arm off just because I promised to take them to the candy store."The slang phrase being used here is "bite my arm off," which means to "get overexcited."Function of Slang Slang allows a person to become creative in the use of language. Some people use slang in order to communicate with each other informally. Similarly, people using slang are able to identify other members of their subculture easily.There is a special Slang Dictionary that contains such words and their meanings. When a new word is created in the slang language, and a majority of people start using it, then it is added into the language. If it does not gain enough popularity, it is forgotten.One of the reasons slang is around is that people believe that, by using slang, they will be able to set themselves apart from others and be unique. However, others believe that this is an improper way of speaking or writing, and strongly criticize its use. Children who use slang while speaking end up using it while writing in school, which is discouraged in the academic world.

Zeugma

Zeugma, from Greek meaning "yoking" or "bonding," is a figure of speech in which a word, usually a verb or an adjective, applies to more than one noun, blending together grammatically and logically different ideas. For instance, in the sentence, "John lost his coat and his temper," the verb "lost" applies to both the nouns "coat" and "temper." Losing a coat and losing temper are logically and grammatically different ideas, which are brought together in this sentence. Zeugma, when used skillfully, produces a unique artistic effect, making the literary works more interesting and effective as it serves to adorn expressions, and to add emphasis to ideas in impressive style.Zeugma and SyllepsisThe Zeugma is sometimes differentiated from "syllepsis." Like zeugma, syllepsis also employs the technique of using a single verb for more than one part in a sentence, but where that single verb applies grammatically and logically to only one. For example, in the sentence, "They saw lots of thunder and lightning," the verb "saw" is logically correct only for the lightning, as thunder is "heard."Similarly, Tennyson's line from Ulysses, "He works his work, I mine" is an example of syllepsis, as the verb "works" is grammatically correct with the first person pronoun "he," but it is incorrect grammar to say "I works mine." Despite this distinction, syllepsis is often considered a kind of zeugma. Bryan A. Garner gives his views about the distinction between zeugma and syllepsis in The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style:"Although commentators have historically tried to distinguish between zeugma and syllepsis, the distinctions have been confusing and contradictory. We're better off using zeugma in its broadest sense and not confusing matters by introducing syllepsis, a little-known term the meaning of which even the experts can't agree on."Zeugma Examples from Literature Example #1: The Holy Bible, Exodus 20:18 (By the Prophet Moses)"And all the people saw the thundering, and the lightning, and the noise of the trumpet, and the mountain smoking: and when the people saw it, they removed, and stood afar off."Example #2: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare)"Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears."Example #3: Of Studies (By Francis Bacon) "Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics, subtle; natural philosophy, deep; moral, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to contend."Example #4: The Rape of the Lock, Canto III (By Alexander Pope)"Here Thou, great Anna! whom three Realms obey,Dost sometimes Counsel take - and sometimes Tea."Example #5: The Rape of the Lock (By Alexander Pope)"Whether the nymph shall break Diana's law,Or some frail China-jar receive a flaw,Or stain her honour, or her new brocade."Example #6: The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (By Mark Twain)"[They] covered themselves with dust and glory."Example #7: The Pickwick Papers (By Charles Dickens)"Miss Bolo [...] went straight home, in a flood of tears and a sedan-chair."Example #8: Oliver Twist (By Charles Dickens)"[H]e was alternately cudgelling his brains and his donkey when, passing the workhouse, his eyes encountered the bill on the gate."Example #9: Essay on Man (By Alexander Pope)"Who sees with equal eye, as God of all,A hero perish, or a sparrow fall,Atoms or systems into ruin hurled,And now a bubble burst, and now a world."Example #10: The Hundred Secret Senses (By Amy Tan)"We were partners, not soul mates, two separate people who happened to be sharing a menu and a life."Example #11: Have Some Madeira, M'Dear (By Flanders and Swann)"She lowered her standards by raising her glass,Her courage, her eyes and his hopes."Example #12: The Things They Carried (By Tim O'Brien)"But Ted Lavender, who was scared, carried 34 rounds when he was shot and killed outside Than Khe, and he went down under an exceptional burden, more than 20 pounds of ammunition, plus the flak jacket and helmet and rations and water and toilet paper and tranquilizers and all the rest, plus an unweighed fear."Function of ZeugmaThe above examples of Zeugma show that this literary device may create confusing or dangling sentences. However, if used correctly, it adds flavor to literary texts as it helps produce a dramatic effect, which could possibly be shocking in its result. Zeugma examples are also in literary works of famous writers and poets from several centuries ago, to add vividness and conciseness to their texts.

Zoomorphism

Zoomorphism is a derivative of the Greek words zōon, which means "animal," and morphē, which means "form," or "shape." It is a literary technique in which animal attributes are imposed upon non-animal objects, humans, and events; and animal features are ascribed to humans, gods, and other objects. Like in this instance, "A couple of customers that had been heading for my slot began to knock against each other, like scared pigs in a chute."(A&P, by John Updike).Here pigs are meant to be intelligent animals, and have been used as a simile to show how people were behaving.Opposite of AnthropomorphismZoomorphism means assigning a person, event, or a deity with animalistic characteristics. Anthropomorphism, on the other hand, is ascribing human qualities to other objects, animals, and inhuman creatures in order to give an insight into their functions.Examples of Zoomorphism in Literature One can find zoomorphism examples in literary pieces written during the time of the Romans and ancient Greeks. However, modern literature has used it extensively as well.Example #1: Barn Burning (By William Faulkner)"The two sisters got down, big, bovine, in a flutter of cheap ribbons; one of them drew from the jumbled wagon bed a battered lantern, the other a worn broom. His father handed the reins to the older son and began to climb stiffly over the wheels ... There was something about his wolf-like independence and even courage when the advantage was at least neutral which impressed strangers, as if they got from his latent ravening ferocity not so much a sense of dependability, as a feeling that his ferocious conviction in the rightness of his own actions would be of advantage to all whose interest lay with his ..."Bovines are cows. They are perceived often as slow, stupid, and lazy animals that do not question their masters. On the other hand, wolves are ferocious predators. In the above excerpt, the girls are represented as cows - having a lack independence, following their father without questioning. The father is compared to a wolf, which has "ferocious conviction in the rightness of his own actions."Example #2: A&P (By John Updike)"You never know for sure how girls' minds work (do you really think it's a mind in there or just a little buzz like a bee in a glass jar?) but you got the idea she had talked the other two into coming in here with here, and now she was showing them how to do it, walk slow and hold yourself straight ... The sheep pushing their carts down the aisle - the girls were walking against the usual traffic (not that we have one-way signs or anything) - were pretty hilarious..."In this case, buzzing like a bee is supposed to imply that there is really nothing important in the girls' minds. While the customers are compared to sheep, who wander in groups mindlessly down the aisles.Example #3: The Holy Bible, Psalms (By Multiple Authors) "For you have been my help. I will rejoice in the shadow of your wings. (Psalm 63:7, English Version)"If I take the wings of the dawn, and settle in the remotest part of the sea..." (Psalm 139:9, English Version)Here, God is represented as a bird. The bird's/God's wings are compared to the comfort and shelter that God gives to His people.Example #4: A Midsummer Night's Dream (By William Shakespeare)"I have had a dream, past the wit of man to say what dream it was: man is but an ass, if he go about to expound this dream ..."This excerpt is the speech of Bottom in the play, who had a dream in which he was an ass-headed monster adored by a gorgeous fairy queen. He describes that humans cannot comprehend his dream; it is beyond their approach.Function of ZoomorphismZoomorphism is a literary technique. Examples of zoomorphism are often found in short stories (used to effectively provide detailed descriptions about the characters in stories). Records show that it has been used as a literary device since the times of the ancient Romans and Greeks. It is a very helpful tool for the effective description of different characters. The purpose of using this technique is to create a figurative language and provide a comparison.

Adynaton

Adynaton is from the Greek word adunaton, which means "impractical," or "impossible." It is a rhetorical device that is a form of hyperbole in which exaggeration is taken to a great extreme where it seems impossible. In other words, when hyperbole is magnified to such an extent that it is completely unfeasible, it is called adynaton. Ideas in the use of adynaton are exaggerated in order to emphasize something.Adynaton and HyperboleAdynaton is a kind of hyperbole, though it is an extreme form. When hyperbole goes to an extreme level, that is completely impossible in reality, it is called adynaton. It is presented as an exaggerated comparison or contrast.Examples of Adynaton in Literature Example #1: To His Coy Mistress (By Andrew Marvell)"Had we but world enough, and timeThis coyness, lady, were no crime.We would sit down, and think which wayTo walk, and pass our long love's day.Thou by the Indian Ganges' sideShouldst rubies find; I by the tideOf Humber would complain. I wouldLove you ten years before the floodAnd you should, if you please, refuseTill the conversion of the Jews."Saying that a lady's "coyness" is a crime, in the first bold phrase above, is clearly an adynaton since no lawmaker would be insane enough to pass a law criminalizing coyness.The bold phrase, "Till the conversion of the Jews" refers to predictions about the Jews converting to Christianity, which have been made by many for centuries. Yet, just like predicted dates of the end of the world have come and gone, a conversion of the Jews has not happened, and is showing no sign of happening.Example #2: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare)"Whence is that knocking?How is't with me when every noise appals me?What hands are here? ha! They pluck out mine eyes.Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this bloodClean from my hand? No, this my hand will ratherThe multitudinous seas in incarnadine,Making the green one red..."In these lines, an effective use of adynaton is evident. The tragic hero "Macbeth" feels guilty after having murdered King Duncan. He feels so much regret that even the big oceans cannot wash the king's blood from his hands.Example #3: As I Walked Out One Evening (By W. H. Auden) "I'll love you, dear, I'll love youTill China and Africa meet,And the river jumps over the mountainAnd the salmon sing in the street,I'll love you till the oceanIs folded and hung up to dryAnd the seven stars go squawkingLike geese about the sky ..."Adynaton is very clear in the highlighted lines, as the poet expresses his love by overstating that the continents of China and Africa will meet, a river will jump over a mountain, fish will sing in the street, and the ocean will be folded and hung up to dry. These are extreme exaggerations, which are impossible in real life.Example #4: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)"Why then, O brawling love, O loving hate,anything, of nothing first create!heavy lightness, serious vanity,Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms ...Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health,Still-waking sleep, that is not what it is!This love feel I, that feel no love in this.Dost thou not laugh?"In this excerpt, Romeo compares his love to several things. He intermingles love with hatred, mixes up beautiful things with ugly, hot with cold, dark with bright, and so on. He also labels love as fighting love and loving hate. These too are great exaggerations of love.Function of AdynatonAdynaton is used to create exaggeration, in order to emphasize some point. The basic purpose of using adynaton is to draw the attention of the audience by overstating some thing or idea.Adynaton examples are found in literary pieces written as early as the Classical and Medieval periods. However, examples of adynaton are seen in folklore, drama, and fiction of the modern age. In everyday conversations, the function of adynaton is to create amusing effects by highlighting an idea. It is employed both for comic as well as serious purposes. By using extravagant statements, poets and writers make ordinary human feelings extraordinary.

Amplification

Amplification is a rhetorical device writers use to embellish a sentence or statement by adding further information. The objective is to increase readability and worth of the statement or sentence. They usually use it when a simple sentence is abrupt, and cannot convey the desired implications. Writers then use amplification to make structural additions, and give further meanings by describing and repeating a certain statement or idea. The purpose of this rhetorical device is to bring the readers' attention to an idea, which they may miss otherwise.Examples of Amplification in LiteratureExample #1: Our Mutual Friend (by Charles Dickens)"Mr. and Mrs. Veneering were bran-new people in a bran-new house in a bran-new quarter of London. Everything about the Veneerings was spick and span new. All their furniture was new, all their friends were new, all their servants were new, their place was new, ... their harness was new, their horses were new, their pictures were new, they themselves were new, they were as newly-married as was lawfully compatible with their having a bran-new baby ..."In this excerpt, Dickens amplifies the phrase "bran-new," and then describes it further by giving more details about everything, such as furniture, friends, servants, place, horses, pictures, etc.Example #2: Northern Exposure (by Chris Stevens)"Goethe's final words: 'More light.' Ever since we crawled out of that primordial slime, that's been our unifying cry: 'More light.' Sunlight. Torchlight. Candlelight. Neon. Incandescent ... Light is metaphor. Thy word is a lamp unto my feet. Rage, rage against the dying of the light. Lead, Kindly Light, amid the encircling gloom, Lead Thou me on! The night is dark, and I am far from home — Lead Thou me on! Arise, shine, for thy light has come. Light is knowledge. Light is life. Light is light."You can notice that emphasis is on the "light" in the excerpt given above. Moving on from literal meaning to the metaphorical meaning of the light, the speaker is describing the purpose of light in human lives.Example #3: The Twits (by Roald Dahl) "If a person has ugly thoughts, it begins to show on the face. And when that person has ugly thoughts every day, every week, every year, the face gets uglier and uglier until you can hardly bear to look at it.A person who has good thoughts cannot ever be ugly. You can have a wonky nose and a crooked mouth and a double chin and stick-out teeth, but if you have good thoughts it will shine out of your face like sunbeams and you will always look lovely."Here in this excerpt, Dahl elaborates to explain in depth the way an ugly person can turn out to be uglier, and how a beautiful person remains beautiful, despite having physical imperfections.Example #4: All Stories Are True (by John Edgar Wideman)"A massive tree centuries old holds out against the odds here across from my mother's house, one of the biggest trees in Pittsburgh, anchored in a green tangle of weeds and bushes, trunk thick as a Buick, black as night after rain soaks its striated hide... If it ever tore loose from its moorings, it would crush her house like a sledgehammer ... "In this example, John Edgar Wideman gives an expanded and enriched description of a huge old tree. He repeatedly describes how it has anchored itself along with weeds and bushes against his mother's house.Example #5: The Scarlet Letter (by Nathaniel Hawthorne)"It is a little remarkable, that—though disinclined to talk 0ver much of myself and my affairs at the fireside, and to my personal friends—an autobiographical impulse should twice in my life have taken possession of me, in addressing the public."This introduction by Nathaniel Hawthorne in his famous novel, The Scarlett Letter, uses amplification. The speaker explains that he is resolved to write his autobiography. Instead of telling it simply, he uses in-depth language to add the main idea into it.Function of Amplification By using amplification, writers repeat something they already have said with the purpose to add more information and details to the original description. In writing and speech, amplification tends to highlight the importance of an idea, to stimulate an emotional response among the audience. In fact, it adds an exaggeration, increases the rhetorical effect, and emphasizes to further elaborate definitions, descriptions, and arguments in a piece. Amplification also highlights the persuasive aspects of an idea by elaborating the reason why it needs to be considered. Besides, in creative writing, it draws readers' attention to the most vivid, thought provoking, and compelling parts of a narrative.

Audience

An Audience is the person for whom a writer writes, or composer composes. A writer uses a particular style of language, tone, and content according to what he knows about his audience. In simple words, audience refers to the spectators, listeners, and intended readers of a writing, performance, or speech. For instance, Stephenie Meyer's novel series, Twilight, has targeted primarily younger female audiences. Similarly, J. K Rowling's Harry Potter series became a blockbuster hit, with a target audience of youth, and adult fantasy fiction lovers. Examples of Audience in LiteratureExample #1: Fahrenheit 451 (by Ray Bradbury)Ray Bradbury, in his novel, Fahrenheit 451, has targeted both adults and young adult readers as his audience. This story is equally appealing to the people of all ages, because its themes concern nuclear destruction, and readers see a battle between nature and technology. It depicts how technology is replacing curiosity, intellectualism, and literature. Above all, it has become a replacement for friendship, family, and real conversation. In this story, the audience sees a future in which the world has evolved into technology, and how government in such a time treats its people differently.Example #2: To Kill a Mockingbird (by Harper Lee)Harper Lee tells the story, To Kill a Mockingbird, through the eyes of a character named Scout; reflecting upon the life of an adult. Throughout the narrative, readers observe her perspective from the lens of one person's recollection, which appears on the very first page of the story. It begins as, "When enough years had gone by to enable us to look back on them, we sometimes discussed the events leading to [Jem's] accident." After this, the author takes the readers back to the times of Scout's first grade, and then onward to her eighth birthday. She is not only a first-person narrator, but also a participant in the story. The story evolves uniquely, through both a child's eyes, and from a mature perspective. This benefit of hindsight is what makes this story so appealing for both children its adult audience.Example #3: Animal Farm (by George Orwell) The intended audience for George Orwell's, "Animal Farm," is the general public, particularly the people of the former Soviet Union. The author intends to inform his readers about dangers of Communism, and its logical outcomes during the Second World War. Furthermore, Orwell wants to inform the next generation about Communism, and its negative impacts on people's lives. By using different styles and writing techniques, Orwell has conveyed his message in such a way that it is easy for the common reader to understand hidden meanings. He has also used satire and allegory, which have made some seemingly worthless and useless characters, which were notable in Russian history, appear as important figures in history. This technique targets the Russian audience.Example #4: The Declaration of Independence (by Thomas Jefferson and Ben Franklin)"The Declaration of Independence" had three types of audiences: American colonists, the British government, and the general public. For American audiences, the purpose was to explain to them why they needed to create a new nation, and why their leaders needed their support. Immediately, they distributed the Declaration throughout the states and colonies to, pushing it out to reach as many people as possible.The second target audience was the British Parliament. By putting blame on the king, and delivering eloquent arguments on freedom and democracy, they were hopeful that the British would support the Americans. This won support of some of the British Parliamentarians, such as Edmund Burke. The third intended audience included the peoples of the world, particularly European nations that were at odds with the British, in an attempt to convince them to support the revolution. The Declaration of Independence did, in fact, affect the American allies: Spain, France, and the Dutch Republic.Function Since the term audience refers to the readers, many writers prefer to adopt different styles of voice - mixed, formal, or casual - depending upon their intended audience. Knowing his audience helps the writer to determine what level of details he should provide, and what type of word choices he may make, because the word choice and tone should match the expectations of the audience.The role of the audience in dramas and stage plays is unique, as the audience members transmit their energy and emotion to the players and actors through their responses during the performance. In this example, the function of the audience is to respond to the performance of the work.

Acrostic

An acrostic is a literary device in which the first letter of every verse consecutively forms a word or message. An acrostic is mostly applied in poetry, but can also be used in prose or word puzzle. This word or alphabet is often connected to the theme of the poem. It is deliberately inserted to make readers discover the layered message. It also acts as a mnemonic device that can quicken the pace of the memorization process. Acrostic poetry can be written in any meter, or free verse form, with or without a rhyme scheme. However, the most common types of acrostic poems are those in which the initial letter of each line forms a word, and is often capitalized.Types of Acrostic PoemsTelestich: These are the poems in which the last letters of each line spell a word or message.Mesostich: The poems in which the middle of words or verses forms a word or a message.Double Acrostic: The poem in which words are spelled by both the first and last letters of each line in a way that one word is read vertically down the left side of the text, and another word is read vertically down the right side of the text.Abecedarian: Acrostic in which alphabets are spelled instead of words. Chaucer's poem "La Priere de Nostre Dame" is a good example of an abecedarian acrostic.Non- Standard: Non-standard acrostics do not use first or last letters to spell out a word. Instead, they emphasize letters in different places within the poem. Examples of Acrostic in Literature Example #1Acrostic in Lewis Carroll's "Acrostic"Little maidens, when you lookOn this little story-book,Reading with attentive eyeIts enticing history,Never think that hours of playAre your only HOLIDAY,And that in a HOUSE of joyLessons serve but to annoy:If in any HOUSE you findChildren of a gentle mind,Each the others pleasing ever—Each the others vexing never—Daily work and pastime dailyIn their order taking gaily—Then be very sure that theyHave a life of HOLIDAY.This is a very famous acrostic by Lewis Carroll. Carroll wrote this poem for three children on Christmas. The poem illustrates the lovely sense of domestic life during the holidays. The poet seems to explain why we should take a break out of busy lives to enjoy these times of the holidays. However, it is the most common type of acrostic, as the initial letters of the poem spell out the names of three sisters: Lorina, Alice, and Edith.Example #2Acrostic in Nabokov's "The Vane Sisters""I could isolate, consciously, little. Everything seemed blurred, yellow-clouded, yielding nothing tangible. Her inept acrostics, maudlin evasions, theopathies—every recollection formed ripples of mysterious meaning. Everything seemed yellowly blurred, illusive, lost."This is the best example of acrostic formed in prose. It is a story about a professor who believes that codes and concealed meanings wrapped in acrostics evoke the thrill of discovery. Therefore, the first letters of each word in the final paragraph of the text spells out a phrase, "Icicles by Cynthia; Meter from me, Sybil." Although these words may sound like nonsense if someone has not come across the story, they are the keywords to interpret the story's mysterious plot.Example #3 An Acrostic by Edgar Allan PoeElizabeth it is in vain you say"Love not" — thou sayest it in so sweet a way:In vain those words from thee or L.E.L.Zantippe's talents had enforced so well:Ah! if that language from thy heart arise,Breath it less gently forth — and veil thine eyes.Endymion, recollect, when Luna triedTo cure his love — was cured of all beside —His follie — pride — and passion — for he died.This famous acrostic has been written by a renowned American poet, Edgar Alan Poe in which he talks about love by using the name, ELIZABETH as a word. The L. E. L in the third line may refer to an English poet, Letitia Elizabeth London, who is famous for signing her works with these initials. The poem speaks about the love and merry-making of a couple. Poe has used acrostic style to illustrate how most of the people find hope in love.Example #4Acrostic in Cage's Overpopulation and ArtThis poem is a mesostic poem in which key letters are placed in the middle of each line. Cage, very skillfully, talks about the phenomenon of overpopulation in this long mesostic poem. He has used these formal strategies to show that in this overcrowding world the individual is no longer the center of social or aesthetic forms of organization in a digitalized world.Acrostics Meaning and FunctionIt is used as a tool to add a new dimension to the texts. The writers, very artistically, transform a simple text into a word puzzle by allowing the audience to interpret the hidden message of the text. Also, it enables the writers to project information comically. However, it is not something comic. The writers purposefully choose this strategy to convey their thoughts, ideas, and messages. Also, the acrostic style makes poems easy to remember. This conventional style of poetry is widely exercised in children literature to make learning fun for them.

Analogy

An analogy is a comparison in which an idea or a thing is compared to another thing that is quite different from it. It aims at explaining that idea or thing by comparing it to something that is familiar. Metaphors and similes are tools used to draw an analogy. Therefore, analogy is more extensive and elaborate than either a simile or a metaphor.Here, an atomic structure is compared to a solar system by using the word "like." Therefore, it is a simile. Metaphor is used to relate the nucleus to the sun, and the electrons to the planets, without using the words "like" or "as." Hence, similes and metaphors are employed to develop an analogy.Examples of Analogy in Everyday LifeWe commonly use analogy in our everyday conversation. Some common analogy examples are given below:Life is like a race. The one who keeps running wins the race, and the one who stops to catch a breath loses.Just as a sword is the weapon of a warrior, a pen is the weapon of a writer.How a doctor diagnoses diseases is like how a detective investigates crimes.Just as a caterpillar comes out of its cocoon, so we must come out of our comfort zone.You are as annoying as nails on a chalkboard.Examples of Analogy in Literature Example #1: Night Clouds (By Amy Lowell)The white mares of the moon rush along the skyBeating their golden hoofs upon the glass Heavens.Here, the poet constructs an analogy between clouds and mares. She compares the movement of the white clouds in the sky at night with that of the white mares on the ground.Example #2: A Hanging (By George Orwell)The lines below were taken from George Orwell's narrative essay A Hanging, which exhibits an analogy between a prisoner and a fish.They crowded very close about him, with their hands always on him in a careful, caressing grip, as though all the while feeling him to make sure he was there. It was like men handling a fish which is still alive and may jump back into the water.The people are taking a prisoner to the gallows to be hanged. They are holding him firmly, as if he were a fish which might slip away and escape.Example #3: The Day Is Done (By Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) Henry Wadsworth Longfellow uses analogy in the following lines taken from his poem The Day is Done:Read from some humbler poet,Whose songs gushed from his heart,As showers from the clouds of summer,Or tears from the eyelids start.He relates his poems to the summer showers and tears from the eyes. He develops the similarity to show spontaneity of art when it directly comes out from the heart of an artist.Example #4: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)These lines are taken from William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Act II, Scene 2:What's in a name? That which we call a roseBy any other word would smell as sweet.So Romeo would, were he not Romeo called...Juliet is indirectly saying that, just like a rose that will always smell sweet by whichever name it is called, she will love Romeo even if he changes his name.Example #5: The Flea (By John Donne)John Donne, in his poem The Flea, uses analogy of a flea to describe his love with his beloved:This flea is you and I, and thisOur marriage bed, and marriage temple is...In the quoted lines, he tells his darling that, as a flea has sucked blood from both of them, and their blood has mingled in its gut, so the flea has become their "wedding bed."Function of AnalogyWriters use analogy to link an unfamiliar or a new idea with common and familiar objects. This makes it is easier for readers to comprehend a new idea, which may have been difficult for them to understand otherwise. In addition, by employing this literary tool, writers catch the attention of their readers. Analogies help increase readers' interest as analogies help them relate what they read to their life.

Archetype

In literature, an archetype is a typical character, an action, or a situation that seems to represent universal patterns of human nature. An archetype, also known as "universal symbol," may be a character, a theme, a symbol, or even a setting. Many literary critics are of the opinion that archetypes - which have a common and recurring representation in a particular human culture, or entire human race - shape the structure and function of a literary work.Carl Jung, Swiss psychologist, argued that the root of an archetype is in the "collective unconscious" of mankind. The phrase "collective unconscious" refers to experiences shared by a race or culture. Such experiences include such things as love, religion, death, birth, life, struggle, and survival. These experiences exist in the subconscious of every individual, and are re-created in literary works, or in other forms of art.Examples of Archetype in LiteratureBelow is the analysis of common archetypes that exist in literature.Archetypes in CharactersExample #1: The HeroHe or she is a character who predominantly exhibits goodness, and struggles against evil in order to restore harmony and justice to society. Examples of hero include Beowulf, in the book Beowulf, Hercules, in the book Hercules, and d'Artagnan, from The Three Musketeers.Example #2: The Mother Figure Such a character may be represented as a Fairy God Mother, who guides and directs a child, Mother Earth, who contacts people and offers spiritual and emotional nourishment, or a Stepmother who treats their stepchildren poorly. Examples of a mother figure include:In Literature:Lucy and Madame Defarge, from Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two CitiesDisely, from William Faulkner's The Sound and the FuryGladriel, from J. R. R. Tolkien's Lord of the RingsGlinda, from the Frank Baum's The Wonderful Wizard of OzIn Fairy Tales:The wicked stepmother in Charles Perrault's CinderellaThe fairy godmothers in Charles Perrault's Sleeping BeautyMother GooseThe grandmother in Charles Perrault's Little Red Riding HoodIn Mythology:The mythological figures of Persephone, Demeter, Hecate, Gorgon, MedusaExample #3: The Innocent YouthHe or she is inexperienced, with many weaknesses, and seeks safety with others. Others like him or her because of the trust he or she shows in other people. Usually, the experience of coming of age comes in the later parts of the narratives. Examples of innocent youth include:Pip in Charles Dickens' Great ExpectationsNicholas in Charles Dickens' The Life and Adventures of Nicholas NicklebyJoseph from Henry Fielding's The History of the Adventures of Joseph AndrewsExample #4: The MentorHis or her task is to protect the main character. It is through the wise advice and training of a mentor that the main character achieves success in the world. Examples of mentor include:Gandalf in J. R. R. Tolkien's Lord of the RingsParson Adams in Henry Fielding's Joseph AndrewsSenex in Madeleine L'Engle's A Wind in the DoorExample #5: The DoppelgangerIt is a duplicate or shadow of a character, which represents the evil side of his personality. Examples of doppelganger in popular literary works include:William Shakespeare's HamletMary Shelley's FrankensteinEdgar Allen Poe's William WilsonRobert Louis Stevenson's Jekyll and Mr. HydeExample #6: The ScapegoatA character that takes the blame for everything bad that happens. Examples of scapegoat include:Snowball, in George Orwell's Animal FarmExample #7: The VillainA character whose main function is to go to any extent to oppose the hero, or whom the hero must annihilate in order to bring justice. Examples of villain include:Shere Khan, from Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book storiesLong John Silver, from Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure IslandArchetypes in SituationsExample #8: The JourneyThe main character takes a journey, which may be physical or emotional, to understand his or her personality, and the nature of the world. Examples of archetype in journey include:Dante Alighieri's The Divine ComedyHenry Fielding's The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews and of his Friend Mr. Abraham AdamsJonathan Swift's Gulliver's TravelsExample #9: The InitiationThe main character undergoes experiences that lead him towards maturity. Examples of archetypes in initiation include:Henry Fielding's History of Tom Jones, a FoundlingLaurence Sterne's The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, GentlemanVoltaire's CandideExample #10: Good Versus EvilIt represents the clash of forces that represent goodness with those that represent evil. Examples of this archetype include:William Shakespeare's King LearJoseph Conrad's Heart of DarknessExample #11: The FallThe main character falls from grace in consequence of his or her own actions. Examples of archetype in fall include:Oedipus, from Sophocles' Oedipus RexLear, from William Shakespeare's King LearFunction of Archetype The use of archetypical characters and situations gives a literary work a universal acceptance, as readers identify the characters and situations in their social and cultural context. By using common archetypes, writers attempt to impart realism to their works, as the situations and characters are drawn from the experiences of the world.

Apostrophe

In literature, apostrophe is a figure of speech sometimes represented by an exclamation, such as "Oh." A writer or speaker, using apostrophe, speaks directly to someone who is not present or is dead, or speaks to an inanimate object. It is important not to confuse apostrophe, the literary device, with the apostrophe punctuation mark ('). The punctuation mark shows possession, or marks the omission of one or more letters (contraction). Apostrophe in literature is an arrangement of words addressing a non-existent person or an abstract idea in such a way as if it were present and capable of understanding feelings.Examples of Apostrophe in LiteratureEnglish literature is replete with instances of apostrophe. Let us have a look at a few examples.Example #1: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare)William Shakespeare makes use of apostrophe in his play Macbeth:"Is this a dagger which I see before me,The handle toward my hand?Come, let me clutch thee!I have thee not, and yet I see thee still."In his mental conflict before murdering King Duncan, Macbeth has a strange vision of a dagger and talks to it as if it were a person.Example #2: The Star (By Jane Taylor)Jane Taylor uses apostrophe in the well-known poem, The Star:"Twinkle, twinkle, little star,How I wonder what you are.Up above the world so high,Like a diamond in the sky."This poem became one of the most popular nursery rhymes told to little children - often in the form of song. In this nursery rhyme, a child speaks to a star (an inanimate object). Hence, this is a classic example of apostrophe.Example #3: Frankenstein (By Mary Shelly) Look at how Mary Shelly uses apostrophe in her novel Frankenstein:"Oh! Stars and clouds and winds, ye are all about to mock me; if ye really pity me, crush sensation and memory; let me become as naught; but if not, depart, depart, and leave me in darkness."Talking to stars, clouds, and winds is apostrophe.Example #4: Death Be Not Proud (By John Donne)"Death be not proud, though some have called theeMighty and dreadful, for, thou art not so,For, those, whom thou think'st, thou dost overthrow,Die not, poor death, nor yet canst thou kill me."Here, Donne speaks to death, an abstract idea, as if it were a person capable of comprehending his feelings.Example #5: The Sun Rising (By John Donne)John Donne once more uses apostrophe in his poem The Sun Rising:"Busy old fool, unruly Sun,Why dost thou thus,Through windows, and through curtains, call onus?Must to thy motions lovers' seasons run?Saucy pedantic wretch ..."The poet addresses the sun in an informal and colloquial way, as if it were a real human being. He asks the Sun in a rude way why the Sun appeared and spoiled the good time he was having with his beloved.Example #5: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce)James Joyce uses apostrophe in his novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man:"Welcome, O life! I go to encounter for the millionth time the reality of experience and to forge in the smithy of my soul the uncreated conscience of my race."Being able to talk to something abstract - like life itself - is possible only in literature.Example #6: To a Stranger Born in Some Distant Country Hundreds of Years from Now (By Billy Collins)In this excerpt, the poet uses conventional apostrophe starting with "O":"O stranger of the future!O inconceivable being!Whatever the shape of your house,However you scoot from place to place,No matter how strange and colorless the clothes you may wear,I bet nobody likes a wet dog either.I bet everyone in your pub,Even the children, pushes her away."The speaker is talking to an imaginary character, the "stranger."Example #7: Sire (By W. S. Merwin)Another apostrophe example comes from the poem Sire, written by W. S. Merwin:"Forerunner, I would like to say, silent pilot,Little dry death, future,Your indirections are as strange to meAs my own. I know so little that anythingYou might tell me would be a revelation."Function of Apostrophe By employing apostrophe in their literary works, writers try to bring abstract ideas or non-existent persons to life, so that the nature of emotions they want to communicate comes across in a better way. It is more convenient for readers to relate themselves to abstract emotions when they observe them in their natural surroundings. In addition, the use of apostrophe motivates readers to develop a perspective that is fresh, as well as creative.

Colloquialism

In literature, colloquialism is the use of informal words, phrases, or even slang in a piece of writing. Colloquial expressions tend to sneak in as writers, being part of a society, are influenced by the way people speak in that society. Naturally, they are bound to add colloquial expressions to their vocabulary. However, writers use such expressions intentionally too, as it gives their works a sense of realism. For instance, in a fiction story depicting American society, a greeting "what's up?" between friends will seem more real and appropriate than the formal "How are you?" or "How do you do?"Colloquialism Examples in Everyday LifeColloquial expressions vary from region to region. Below is a list of some colloquialism examples of American origin:Bamboozle - to deceiveBo bananas, or go nuts - go insane or be very angryWanna - want toGonna - going toY'all - you allBe blue - to be sadBuzz off - go awayExamples of Colloquialism in Literature Example #1: Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (By Mark Twain)Mark Twain, in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, used black-American vernacular to realistically show how the "negroes" [Black Americans] talked:"I didn't want to go back no more. I had stopped cussing, because the widow didn't like it; but now I took to it again because pap hadn't no objections... But by-and-by pap got too handy with his hick'ry, and I couldn't stand it. I was all over with welts. He got to going away so much, too, and locking me in. Once he locked me in and was gone three days. It was dreadful lonesome."The use of double negatives is evident in the above passage, and was used as a typical characteristic of black-American vernacular.Example #2: The Sun Rising (By John Donne)John Donne uses colloquialisms in his poem The Sun Rising:"Busy old fool, unruly Sun,Why dost thou thus,Through windows, and through curtains, call on us?Must to thy motions lovers' seasons run?Saucy pedantic wretch..."The poet addresses the sun in an informal and colloquial way, as if it were a real human being. He asks the sun in a rude manner why he had appeared and spoiled the good time he was having with his beloved. Not finishing there, he commands the "saucy pedantic sun" to go away.Example #3: Burro Genius (By Victor Villasenor) We cite the use of colloquial expressions in the play Burro Genius, by Victor Villasenor:"'I don't understand!' roared my father, putting his money back in his pocket. 'Hell, I've forgotten more than you or most people will EVER UNDERSTAND!''Salvador,' said my mother as quietly as she could, 'why don't you and Mundo go outside and let me talk to this woman alone.''Damn good idea!' said my father."In this passage, Salvador's father uses colloquial words like "hell" and "damn," which gives insight into his aggressive and harsh nature. The idea of using colloquialisms is to put diversity into the characters.Example #4: Of Mice and Men (By John Steinbeck)Yet another instance of colloquialism can be seen in Of Mice and Men, by John Steinbeck:"'Sure I will, George. I won't say a word.''Don't let him pull you in—but—if the son-of-a-bitch socks you—let 'im have it.''Never mind, never mind. I'll tell you when. I hate that kind of guy. Look, Lennie, if you get in any kind of trouble, you remember what I told you to do?'Lennie raised up on his elbow. His face contorted with thought. Then his eyes moved sadly to George's face. 'If I get in any trouble, you ain't gonna let me tend the rabbits.'"In the above example, the writer shows how vulgar colloquial expressions can be, depending upon who uses them, and how they use them. The above colloquial expressions are realistic enough as they are uttered by middle-aged men of a working class who are not well educated or refined.Function of ColloquialismColloquial expressions in a piece of literature may give us deep insights into the writer's society. They tell us about how people really talk in their real lives. Therefore, they help a writer to form strong connections with readers. Colloquial expressions impart a sense of realism to a piece of literature, which again attracts readers as they identify it with their real life. Moreover, they add variety to the characters which makes them more interesting and memorable.

Conflict

In literature, conflict is a literary element that involves a struggle between two opposing forces, usually a protagonist and an antagonist. Internal and External ConflictsCareful examination of some conflict examples will help us realize that they may be internal or external. An internal or psychological conflict arises as soon as a character experiences two opposite emotions or desires - usually virtue and vice, or good and evil - inside him. This disagreement causes the character to suffer mental agony, and it develops a unique tension in a storyline, marked by a lack of action. External conflict, on the other hand, is marked by a characteristic involvement of an action wherein a character finds himself in struggle with those outside forces that hamper his progress. The most common type of external conflict is where a protagonist fights back against the antagonist's tactics that impede his or her advancement.Examples of Conflict in Literature Example #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)Hamlet's internal conflict is the main driver in William Shakespeare's play Hamlet." It decides his tragic downfall. He reveals his state of mind in the following lines from Act 3, Scene 1 of the play:"To be, or not to be - that is the question:Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to sufferThe slings and arrows of outrageous fortuneOr to take arms against a sea of troublesAnd by opposing end them. To die, to sleep..."The conflict here is that Hamlet wants to kill his father's murderer, Claudius, but he also looks for proof to justify his action. This ultimately ruins his life, and the lives of his loved ones. Due to his internal conflict, Hamlet spoils his relationship with his mother, and sends Ophelia (Hamlet's love interest) into such a state of despair that she commits suicide.Hamlet's indecisiveness almost got everyone killed at the end of the play. The resolution came when he killed Claudius by assuming fake madness so that he would not be asked for any justification. In the same play, we find Hamlet engaged in an external conflict with his uncle Claudius.Example #2: Doctor Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe)Another example of an internal conflict is found in the character of Doctor Faustus in Marlowe's Doctor Faustus. Faustus has an ambitious nature. In spite of being a respected scholar, he sold his soul to Lucifer by signing a contract with his blood, in order to achieve ultimate power and limitless pleasure in this world. He learns the art of black magic, and defies Christianity.After the aforementioned action, we see Faustus suffering from an internal conflict where he thinks honestly about repenting, acting upon the advice of "the good angel," but "the bad angel" or the evil inside him distracts him by saying it is all too late. In conclusion, the resolution comes when devils take his soul away to Hell, and he suffers eternal damnation because of his over-ambition.Example #3: The Lord of the Flies Farm (By William Golding) The most straightforward type of external conflict is when a character in a story struggles against another character physically. In William Golding's novel The Lord of the Flies, for example, Ralph (the leader of the "good guys") steadily comes into conflict with Jack - a bully who later forms a "tribe" of hunters. Jack and his tribe give in to their savage instinct, and make attempts to hunt or kill the civilized batch of boys led by Ralph.Example #4: To Kill a Mockingbird (By Harper Lee)Another kind of external conflict sets a character against the evil that dominates a society. In this case, a character may confront a dominant group with opposing priorities. For instance, in Harper Lee's novel To Kill a Mockingbird, an honest lawyer, Atticus Finch, goes up against the racist society in which he lives. Atticus has the courage to defend a black man, Tom Robinson, who has been falsely accused of a rape. Though Atticus has the support of a few like-minded people, most of the townspeople express their disapproval of his defense of a black man.Function of ConflictBoth internal and external conflicts are essential elements of a storyline. It is essential for a writer to introduce and develop them, whether internal, external, or both, in his storyline in order to achieve the story's goal. Resolution of the conflict entertains the readers.

Character

All stories need certain necessary elements. Without these elements, literary works often fail to make sense. For instance, one of the essential elements of every story is a plot with a series of events. Another important element is a character. A character can be any person, a figure, an inanimate object, or animal. There are different types of characters, and each serves its unique function in a story or a piece of literature. Types of CharacterThere are many types of the characters which include:ConfidanteA confidante is someone in whom the main character confides. He reveals the central character's thoughts, intentions, and personality traits. However, a confidante need not necessarily be a person. An animal can also be a confidante.Dynamic CharacterA dynamic character changes during the course of a novel or a story. This change in character or his/her outlook is permanent. That is why sometimes a dynamic character is also called a "developing character."Static Character A static character remains the same throughout the whole story. Even the events in a story or novel do not change character's outlook, perceptions, habits, personality, or motivations.AntagonistAn antagonist is a bad guy, or an opponent of the protagonist or the main character. The action in the story arises from a conflict between the protagonist and the antagonist. The antagonist can be a person, an inanimate object, an animal, or nature itself.ProtagonistEvery story has a protagonist, the main character, who creates the action of the plot and engages readers, arousing their empathy and interest. The protagonist is often a hero or heroine of the story, as the whole plot moves around him or her.Round CharacterThe round characters are well-developed and complex figures in a story. They are more realistic, and demonstrate more depth in their personalities. They can make surprising or puzzling decisions, and attract readers' attention. There are many factors that may affect them, and round characters react to such factors realistically.Flat CharacterA flat character does not change during a story. Also, he or she usually only reveals one or two personality traits.Stock CharacterA stock character is a flat character that is instantly recognizable by readers. Like a flat character, the stock character does not undergo any development throughout the story.Examples of Character in Literature Example #1: The Lord of the Rings trilogy (By J. R. R.)In The Lord of the Rings Trilogy, Frodo and his friend Sam discover their unexpected personal commitment, emotional and physical strength, and dedication to the cause. Gandalf discovers that his trust was broken by his fellow wizards, thus he transforms into a magician with a stronger character. Aragorn, an heir to line of kings, gives up his title; however, over the period of time he discovers his leadership skills, and decides to regain his crown. All of these characters provide us with good examples of round characters, each having depth of personality, and abilities to surprise the readers.Example #2: A Christmas Carol (by Charles Dickens)In Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol, Ebenezer Scrooge is a tightfisted person. He forces his workers to work hard, but gives them peanuts in return. However, after undergoing some very strange and disturbing experiences with the ghosts, he changes his ways - paying his employees more than their fair wages, giving them days off work, and even gives gifts. This transformation makes him fit into the role of a dynamic character.Example #3: Hedda Gabler (by Henrik Ibsen)Hedda Gabler is manipulative, cold, and "demonic," even though she is the title character - the focus of the play. She is the most complex and psychologically compelling character, the reason that she is a dynamic character.Example #4: Othello (by William Shakespeare)At some points, it seems that Iago is the protagonist, since he dominates the entire play and delivers soliloquies. However, he does not change at all, and most of the protagonists undergo some sort of change during a play. Also, in the opening lines, Iago describes himself as someone who wishes to destroy Othello. Thus, his actions transform him into a tragic antagonistic type of character, though he is the central character of the play.Function of CharacterThe main function of a character in a story is to extend or prolong the plot, make it readable and interesting. Many stories use multiple characters, and every story has a main character that affects the plot a great deal. The main character could be a protagonist, an antagonist, a dynamic, a static, a flat, or a round character. Readers feel that the characters given in the literary pieces exist, and they enjoy reading their real and lifelike figures and actions.

Allegory

Allegory is a figure of speech in which abstract ideas and principles are described in terms of characters, figures, and events. It can be employed in prose and poetry to tell a story, with a purpose of teaching or explaining an idea or a principle. The objective of its use is to teach some kind of a moral lesson.Difference Between Allegory and SymbolismAlthough an allegory uses symbols, it is different from symbolism. An allegory is a complete narrative that involves characters and events that stand for an abstract idea or event. A symbol, on the other hand, is an object that stands for another object, giving it a particular meaning. Unlike allegory, symbolism does not tell a story. For example, Plato, in his Allegory of Cave, tells a story of how some people are ignorant, while at the same time other people "see the light." Plato's allegory stands for an idea and does not tell an actual story.Examples of Allegory in Everyday Life Allegory is an archaic term, which is used specifically in literary works. It is difficult to spot its occurrence in everyday life, although recently we do find examples of allegory in political debates. The declaration of former U.S. President George W. Bush was allegorical when he used the term "Axis of Evil" in referring to three countries considered a danger to the world. He later used the term "allies" for those countries that would wage war against the "Axis."Examples of Allegory in LiteratureExample #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell)Animal Farm, written by George Orwell, is an allegory that uses animals on a farm to describe the overthrow of the last Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, and the Communist Revolution of Russia before WW I. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the revolution. It also describes how powerful people can change the ideology of a society. One of the cardinal rules on the farm is this:"All animals are equal but a few are more equal than others."The animals on the farm represent different sections of Russian society after the revolution.For instance, the pigs represent those who came to power following the revolution; "Mr. Jones," the owner of the farm, represents the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II; while "Boxer" the horse, represents the laborer class. The use of allegory in the novel allows Orwell to make his position clear about the Russian Revolution and expose its evils.Example #2: Faerie Queen (By Edmund Spenser)Faerie Queen, a masterpiece of Edmund Spenser, is a moral and religious allegory.The good characters of book stand for the various virtues, while the bad characters represent vices. "The Red-Cross Knight" represents holiness, and "Lady Una" represents truth, wisdom, and goodness. Her parents symbolize the human race. The "Dragon," which has imprisoned them, stands for evil.The mission of holiness is to help the truth fight evil, and thus regain its rightful place in the hearts of human beings. "The Red-Cross Knight" in this poem also represents the reformed church of England, fighting against the "Dragon," which stands for the Papacy or the Catholic Church.Example #3: Pilgrim's Progress (By John Bunyan) John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress is an example of spiritual allegory. The ordinary sinner, Christian, leaves the City of Destruction, and travels towards Celestial City, where God resides, for salvation. He finds Faithful, a companion who helps him on his way to the City. On many instances, many characters, including Hypocrisy, Apollyon, Mr. Worldly Wiseman, Obstinate, and Pliable try to discourage or stop him from achieving his aim. Finally, he reaches the Celestial City, carried by Hopeful's faith.The moral learned through this allegory is that the road to Heaven is not easy, and it is full of obstacles. A Christian has to be willing to pay any price to achieve salvation. A man is full of sins, but this does not stop him from achieving glory.Function of AllegoryWriters use allegory to add different layers of meanings to their works. Allegory makes their stories and characters multidimensional, so that they stand for something larger in meaning than what they literally stand for. Allegory allows writers to put forward their moral and political points of view. A careful study of an allegorical piece of writing can give us an insight into its writer's mind, how he views the world, and how he wishes the world to be.

Novel

A Novel is a long narrative work of fiction with some realism. It is often in prose form and is published as a single book. The word 'novel' has been derived from the Italian word 'novella' which means "new". Similar to a short story, a novel has some features like a representation of characters, dialogues, setting, plot, climax, conflict, and resolution. However, it does not require all the elements to be a good novel. Types of NovelThere are many types of novels. They include mysteries, thrillers, suspense, detective, science fiction, romantic, historical, realist or even postmodern.Examples of Novels from Literature Example #1Animal Farm by George OrwellAnimal Farm by George Orwell was written in 1945 and published in England. It allegorizes the story of the Communist Revolution in Russia through the characters of pigs and satirizes its degradation into the same totalitarian regime. The story revolves around animals where pigs are the cleverer than others. They bring a revolution, expelling their old master, Mr. Jones. However, after a couple of years, the pig leaders Snowball and Napoleon develop friction. Snowball flees to save his life, and the situation turns a full circle where Napoleon and his cohorts again take a dictatorial turn to run the administration of the farm through propaganda and other strategies. This is a short form of a novel with animals as its characters.Example #2The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest HemingwayThe Old Man and the Sea is a tour de force of Hemingway which won Noble Prize for Literature for him. A model of the realistic novel, the Old Man and the Sea presents the story of an old man who is too fragile to fish alone in the Gulf Stream near the Cuban capital of Havana. However, he hooks a truly huge marlin which tests his mettle for almost three days. Although he kills the marlin by the end, he loses it to sharks. His extreme fight and endurance win him accolades from the readers.Example #3 Great Expectations by Charles DickensThis is one of the best comings of the age novels, which takes the reader on a journey to see the life of a poor young boy, Pip. In the novel, Pip's transformation from a poor orphan into a gentleman living in London goes through various challenges. His mistakes teach him valuable lessons as he realizes what his benefactors and Joe did for him. Parallelly, he falls in love with prideful Estelle and does his best to win her affection. By the end of the novel, Estelle is a widow and humbled, and Pip asks her to marry him, which she accepts. Without a doubt, "The Great Expectations" is one of the best English novels which tells the main characters personal growth and development.Example #4Frankenstein by Mary ShelleyAlthough written in the 19th century, Frankenstein by Mary Shelley is one of the best science fictions. The story of a young scientist, Victor Frankenstein obsessed with the idea of creating life. He creates 'the Creature' and is repulsed by his own experiment. The Creature brings havoc in Victor Frankenstein's life after he fails to give him a partner. Both Victor and the creature meet with a tragic end. The story teaches a lesson that we must never intervene with nature.Example #5Tess of the d'Urbervilles by Thomas HardyTess of the d'Urbervilles by Thomas Hardy is one of the best novels of the last century, which explores the role of fate and chance in an individual's life. Tess belongs to a poor family, but her father discovers that their family perhaps descendants of D'Urbervilles, a noble family, after meeting Parson Tringham. Taking pride in his ancient lineage, he spends whatever they have and forces his young daughter to work on a farm where she is raped. Later, another young man, Angel Clare, marries her but after this disclosure, he leaves her. By the end of the novel, Angel returns and accepts her, but Tess is hanged for murdering her former rapist, Alec.Novel Meaning and FunctionA novel presents a whole picture as compared to a short story which displays only one aspect of life, or one side of the story. It also shows a vast panorama to its readers to see the story through an age in which it is presented such as The Tale of Two Cities has been written during the times when France and England were going through a lot of changes. Similarly, a novel also presents a conflict and its resolution. For every writer, a novel is a strong tool to present the philosophical, historical, social, cultural and moral perspectives.

Epigraph

An epigraph is a literary device in the form of a poem, quotation, or sentence - usually placed at the beginning of a document or a simple piece - having a few sentences, but which belongs to another writer. An epigraph can serve different purposes, such as it can be used as a summary, introduction, example, or an association with some famous literary work, so as to draw a comparison, or to generate a specific context for the piece. Epigraph is a very sophisticated form of literary device that can really brush up a story very well. Nevertheless, a question that usually comes to mind about this device is why an epigraph is always used in the beginning. Sometimes, when you are done reading a book, you are so swamped by the story that it makes you want to hold the book close to your chest and transfer everything in it to your soul directly. It is because the book is so amazing that it makes us want to remember everything in it. Now, imagine how moving it would be to turn the very last page thinking you have finished the book, and right there you find an epigraph that reflects on everything you just read.Examples of Epigraph in LiteratureExample #1: Heart of Darkness (By Joseph Conrad)Many famous poems provide good examples of epigraph. For instance, "Mistah Kurtz, he dead," is a line from Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad, which was used in the famous poem The Hollow Men by T. S. Eliot to describe how modern people have dead souls, like the character Kurtz of Heart of Darkness. It is because they have taken materialism as their demigod, and accepted its domination, submitting their spirits to it like Kurtz did.Example #2: Life: A User's Manual (By Georges Perec) The epigraphs used in the preface of Georges Perec's Life: A User's Manual (La Vie mode d'emploi) notify the reader in advance that everything is not what it seems, and that tricks are going to be played.Example #3: The Brothers Karamazov (By Fyodor Dostoevsky)Epigraph examples are also found in philosophical novels. The epigraph used by Dostoevsky in The Brothers Karamazov is from the Holy Bible, specifically John 12:24. It says:"Verily, verily, I say unto you, except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die, it abideth alone: but if it dies, it bringeth forth much fruit."Example #4: The Sun Also Rises (By Ernest Hemingway) Ernest Hemingway used Gertrude Stein's famous quotation, "You are all a lost generation," in the beginning of his book The Sun Also Rises. Through this epigraph, Hemingway shows us the entire period in which they were forced to live. The lost generation phrase as coined by Steinbeck was truly reflected by Hemingway in his other pieces as well, but this novel proved to be a mouthpiece for the lost generation.Example #5: The Godfather (By Mario Puzo)"Behind every great fortune there is a crime."This is a translated quotation from Honoré de Balzac given in The Godfather, a famous novel by Mario Puzo. The epigraph given in this novel presents the true picture of a gangster who earns a lot of wealth, and wields much control over the lives of others. The Godfather is a true reflection of what its epigraph suggests.Function of EpigraphThe use of epigraph in an original work can create something very intriguing. It can be used as a thematic gatekeeper, by taking excerpts from influential authors to introduce people to your own ideas. It can be used in the form of quotations, proverbs, lyrics, lines, or verses, or even parts of a conversation. It can also be used to set the mood of the readers in the very beginning, for the prose they are to read next.A writer can also give readers a preview of his notions and inspirations through an epigraph. Although the role of an epigraph in a work may seem very insignificant, it can be very instructive, if used cleverly. An epigraph deepens the readers' interest in the narrative just like an appetizer increases your appetite for a meal. It can also be used in places where the writer wants to highlight a particular point with the help of an already existing concept.

Epilogue

An epilogue, or "epilog," is a chapter at the end of a work of literature, which concludes the work. Epilogue, Prologue, and AfterwordEpilogue is the opposite of prologue, which is a piece of writing at the beginning of a literary work. An epilogue is different from an afterword, in that it is part of the main story, occurring after the climax, and revealing the fates of the characters. An afterword is typically written by someone other than the author, and describes how the book came into being.Usually, an epilogue is set a few hours after the main body of the story, or far into the future, where the writer speaks to the readers indirectly, through the point of view of a different character. In an afterword, on the other hand, an author speaks to the readers directly. In it, a writer may provide a reason for writing the book, and detail the research that has gone into writing the book.Sometimes, a writer may employ an epilogue to cover loose ends of his story, resolving those issues that were brought up by the writer in the story, but were not resolved in the climax.Epilogue in Greek and Elizabethan Stage Plays Epilogue examples are abundant in Greek and Elizabethan stage plays, since including epilogues at the end of the plays was a common practice among their playwrights. After the end of the play, an actor would step forward, speaking directly to the audience, offering his gratitude to them for watching the play patiently.In comedies, epilogues uttered by those actors were often used to show the main characters of the plays enjoying a happy and contented life after experiencing the disorder during the play.Similarly, in tragedies the actors narrating the epilogue told the audience about the tragic hero's final suffering, caused by his poor moral choices. Moreover, the speaker of an epilogue would directly describe the lesson or moral the audience should have learned from the story.Epilogue in Horror and Suspense NovelsIn modern horror and suspense novels and stories, the epilogue is purposefully used to hint at a threat that still looms large on the horizon. The monster or villain is believed to have been done with, but the epilogue suggests that the danger is not over and still looms over them. Therefore, it adds to the horror and mystery of the work of literature, as the readers get the idea that the characters are not safe, though they might believe so. In some cases, epilogue can also be used to confirm that a narrative is not over, and there is still more to the story. It gives the readers an idea that there will be a sequel.Examples of Epilogue in LiteratureExample #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)Consider the following epilogue that is spoken in William Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet:"A glooming peace this morning with it brings;The sun for sorrow will not show his head.Go hence to have more talk of these sad things,Some shall be pardoned, and some punished,For never was a story of more woeThan this of Juliet and her Romeo."A post-play description of the play is given in a most poignant fashion, describing the gloomy atmosphere after the tragedy befell the two ardent lovers, Romeo and Juliet.Example #2: As You Like It (By William Shakespeare)Notice a carefree sort of epilogue that marks the end of yet another of Shakespeare's plays, As You Like It, spoken by Rosalind:"... and I charge you, O men, for the love you bear to women — as I perceive by your simpering, none of you hates them — that between you and the women the play may please. If I were a woman, I would kiss as many of you as had beards that pleased me, complexions that liked me, and breaths that I defied not. And I am sure as many as have good beards, or good faces, or sweet breaths will, for my kind offer, when I make curtsy, bid me farewell."It clearly shows how happy and contented Rosalind is.Example #3: Animal Farm (By George Orwell) We notice George Orwell appending an epilogue to his novel Animal Farm, as Chapter 10. He, in his epilogue, presents the situation of the Manor Farm after many years have passed, describing the fate of the characters who participated in the revolution. He says:"YEARS passed. The seasons came and went, the short animal lives fled by. A time came when there was no one who remembered the old days before the Rebellion, except Clover, Benjamin, Moses the raven, and a number of the pigs."Similarly, Orwell tells us about the evolution that has taken place in the dominating pigs that are still at the helms of power. He says:"Twelve voices were shouting in anger, and they were all alike. No question, now, what had happened to the faces of the pigs. The creatures outside looked from pig to man, and from man to pig, and from pig to man again; but already it was impossible to say which was which."Function of EpilogueWriters of great examples of epilogue show how useful this device is to achieve the following ends:To satisfy the readers' curiosity, by telling them about the fate of the characters after the climaxTo cover loose ends of the storyTo hint at a sequel or next installment of the story

Dysphemism

Dysphemism is originated from the Greek word dys, means "miss," or "none," and pheme, which means "reputation," or "speech." It is a figure of speech that is defined as the use of disparaging or offensive expressions instead of inoffensive ones. Dysphemism is the use of negative expressions instead of positive ones. A speaker uses them to humiliate or degrade the disapproved person or character. Dysphemism examples may be classified according to the following types. Types of DysphemismSynecdoche - It is used to describe something as a whole like, "she is a prick."Dysphemistic Epithets - The use of animal names, such as "pig," "bitch," "rat," "dog," or "snake."Euphemistic Dysphemism - This is when a soft expression is used without offending.Dysphemistic Euphemism - It is used as a mockery between close friends without any animosity."-ist" Dysphemism - Targeted at a particular ethnicity.Homosexual Dysphemism - These terms are used regarding homosexuality like, "gay," "******," and "queer."Name Dysphemism - It is used when someone is called by his name, rather than by using his proper title, such as "How are you Bill?" (Instead of "Uncle Bill").Non-verbal Dysphemism - It is used when offending someone with gestures.Cross-cultural Dysphemism - Different slang terms are used as dysphemistic in one culture; on the other hand, they might have a totally different meaning in other cultures. For instance, "fag" is a slur used for gay man in American English, whereas, in British English it used for a cigarette.Opposite to Euphemism Euphemism is a mild and positive expression used to replace an unpleasant or negative one. Whereas dysphemism is the opposite of euphemism; it is the replacement of a positive or neutral expression with an unpleasant or negative one.Examples of Dysphemism in LiteratureExample #1: The Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce)"Let him remember too, cried Mr. Casey to her from across the table, the language with which the priests and the priests' pawns broke Parnell's heart and hounded him into his grave. Let him remember that too when he grows up."— Sons of bitches! cried Mr.Daedalus. When he was down they turned on him to betray him and rend him like rats in a sewer. Low-lived dogs! And they look it! By Christ, they look it! They behaved rightly, cried Dante. They obeyed their bishops and their priests. Honour to them!"In this excerpt, Mr. Daedalus uses very harsh words in order to express his anger. Though he could have used less offensive words, Joyce has employed the dysphemistic technique. These humiliating expressions are shown in bold.Example #2: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)HAMLET"Oh, that this too, too sullied flesh would melt,Thaw, and resolve itself into a dew,Or that the Everlasting had not fixedHis canon 'gainst self-slaughter! O God, God...Fie on't, ah fie! 'Tis an unweeded gardenThat grows to seed...So excellent a king, that was to thisHyperion to a satyr..."Hamlet feels despondency about his mother's second marriage to his uncle. Hence, he uses harsh language to state that his flesh could have melted away, or that God has not forbidden suicide, and "fie on't" means "damn it." His father is like a god (Hyperion), and his uncle is like a beast (satyr).Example #3: The Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce) "Whatever else is unsure in this stinking dunghill of a world a mother's love is not..."Stephen Daedalus, in this excerpt, uses a harsh and disparaging term for a world that is a "stinking dunghill," while comparing it to a mother's love which is opposite to that, being pure and free of such negativities of the world.Example #4: Othello (By William Shakespeare)OTHELLO"By heaven, I saw my handkerchief in 's hand.O perjured woman, thou dost stone my heart..."DESDEMONA"Alas, he is betrayed and I undone."OTHELLO"Out, strumpet! weep'st thou for him to my face?"OTHELLO"Down, strumpet."Here, Shakespeare uses the first type of dysphemism, which is Synecdoche, which means he describes the character of Desdemona as a sinful person by calling her a "perjured woman," and a "strumpet," which is an offensive word meaning "*****."Function of DysphemismDysphemism is used as a device for degradation, minimization, or humiliation of individuals who are disapproved of or condemned. When a speaker uses this technique, he uses marked form directed towards a group or the listeners. The purpose is to express anger or social distance from a particular group. It is frequently employed in literary texts, political speeches, and colloquial expressions. Sometimes, dysphemism could be the result of hatred and fear, though disapproval and contempt might also motivate dysphemism to be used.

Dystopia

Dystopia is a world in which everything is imperfect, and everything goes terribly wrong. Dystopian literature shows us a nightmarish image about what might happen to the world in the near future. Usually the main themes of dystopian works are rebellion, oppression, revolutions, wars, overpopulation, and disasters. On the other hand, utopia is a perfect world - exactly opposite of dystopia. Characteristics of DystopiaGenerally, there is no government, or if there is, it is an oppressive and controlling government.Either there is a huge income gap between the poor and the rich, or everyone faces extreme poverty.Propaganda put forth by the government or ruling class takes control of human minds.Examples of Dystopia in Literature Example #1: The Hunger Games (By Suzanne Collins)Suzanne Collins depicts a dystopic world, Panem, in a futuristic society in her series, The Hunger Games. Consisting of a central government referred to as "Capitol," and thirteen remote districts, Panem displays a model of dystopian society due to harsh separation and discrimination between the unkind Capitol and the poor, enslaved outlying districts.We notice throughout the novel that Panem's Capitol makes use of intimidation and violence to control its people living in the Districts. It forces the districts to engage in "The Games" to enforce servitude under the guise of celebrating an absence of war. Though Capitol itself might appear utopian, due to an excessive availability of opulent consumer goods, its abundance of riches comes at the expense of the remote Districts.Example #2: 1984 (By George Orwell)In his classic novel, 1984, George Orwell shows a dystopian society. He has written this novel to describe the future, and the ways government takes advantage of new technologies in order to rule and control the people. The leading character, Winston Smith, falls in a trap where Big Brother, a leader of the party always watches him and other low-grade members of that society.Inner party members live a life of luxury, while outer members live in dirty apartments. Besides, there is no emotional and mental freedom. The party does not allow anyone to rebel, even by using their minds. We see violence everywhere in this dystopic society, and the majority of people are poor, which further proves it as a fine example of dystopia. We notice everything goes decrepit, and its scenes are often dreary and dark.Example #3: Brave New World (By Aldous Huxley) Aldous Huxley, in his most challenging novel, Brave New World, depicts a futuristic society where individual sacrifices for the cause of state, science controls and subjugates all types of history, and the arts are outlawed. Shortly, this book perfectly fits into a classic form of dystopian literature.Huxley draws dystopia through emotional and political events. He brings a dystopian setting by the mention of technology and higher authorities. With the increased use of technology, the need for a human work force decreases, leaving them with a great deal of depression. The novel explores the dark side of an apparently successful world, where everyone looks satisfied and contented with excessive pleasures of technology, which they achieve by sacrificing their personal freedoms.Example #4: The Giver (By Lois Lowry)Lois Lowry wrote a dystopian fiction, The Giver, because she thought it to be the best way to express her dissatisfaction about the unawareness of human beings about their dependence upon each other, their surroundings, and their environment. By using ironical situations of the utopian appearances, she exposes dystopian realities, in order to provoke readers to raise questions, and value their individual identities and freedom.In this novel, Jonas' community has no starvation, poverty, lack of housing, unemployment, or prejudice, and everything seems perfect. However, as the novel advances, Jonas gets insight into people's personal lives, and notices that they have given up their individualities and freedoms. Besides, the community is a hypocrite conforming to false ideas and becoming a bad place in which to live.Function of DystopiaThrough dystopia, authors express their concerns about issues of humanity and society, and warn the people about their weaknesses. Authors use dystopia as a literary technique to discuss reality, and depict issues that might happen in the future. Thus, the role of dystopia in literary works is to educate and give awareness to the audience. Dystopias also serve as warnings about the current state of affairs of a government, or of those in power. In dystopic writings, authors point out the wrong-doings in a society or a system - the reason that it is often called a critique.

Romance

Etymologically, romance comes from Anglo-Norman and Old French romanz, which means a story of chivalry and love. The word "romance" also refers to romantic love. As far as literature in concerned, the term has an entirely a different concept. It means romantic stories with chivalrous feats of heroes and knights. Romance describes chivalry and courtly love, comprising stories and legends of duty, courage, boldness, battles, and rescues of damsels in distress. Romance and RomanticismRomance, as pointed out, is a type of fiction, comprising idealized love, chivalry, obsessive association with somebody or some idea, and mysterious adventures. However, Romanticism is a specific movement and period in English literature during which poems, stories, and novels related to Romantic ideas were created. William Wordsworth, P. B. Shelly, Lord Byron, and John Keats are some of the most famous poets and writers of the Romantic period. However, Romances have been written since classical English period.Examples of Romance in Literature Example #1: Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (Author Unknown)This 14th century romance, whose writer is still unknown, revolves around the bravery of Sir Gawain, a knight of King Arthur, who accepts the challenge from the Green Knight. Sir Gawain beheads the knight, but the knight goes away reminding him that he would appear again. In this struggle, Sir Gawain shows his true nature of bravery, chivalry, and courage when tested by a lady, as he stays in the castle of that very knight.Example #2: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen)One of Jane Austen's most famous novels is Pride and Prejudice, which is a remarkable example of romance in English literature. This novel narrates the story of the Bennet family. Mrs. Bennett has five daughters, and she is desperate to get them married. She is seen trying to achieve her ambition throughout the novel.Elizabeth, the second of the five, possesses a sharp mind and independent nature, and she feels embarrassed at her mother's attempts to marry her off. Elizabeth meets Mr. Darcy, who is a wealthy landowner. She dislikes him in their first meeting, due to his arrogant attitude. However, as the story moves along, several other couples emerge on the scene. Although it is not a perfect example of a medieval romance, it is considered a good example of a romantic novel.Example #3: The Count of Monte Cristo (By Alexander Dumas) One more example of romance is The Count of Monte Cristo, written by French author Alexander Dumas, in 1844. The story of the novel takes place in France, Italy, and on some Mediterranean islands. The primary themes of the story comprise justice, bravery, courage, mercy, hope, and forgiveness.The narrative revolves round a man who is sent to prison wrongly. He manages to escape and acquires a fortune just by a stroke of luck. He ultimately starts avenging those who were responsible for his incarceration. His plans, however, have devastating effects on the innocent and the guilty alike. Characters reveal their true natures and inner selves through betrayal, acts of courage, selfishness, and timidity. The novel is a good example of a romance fiction.Example #4: Fifty Shades of Grey (By E. L. James)This is an example of modern erotic romance, which has won accolades in literary circles. In the story, the writer narrates the relationship between two college fellows - Anastasia Steel, and her young business lover Christian Grey. The story then depicts scenes of their erotic love, comprising elements of discipline, dominance, submission, masochism, and sadism. Despite ups and downs in their relations, they finally part, reviewing incompatibility in their love, but depicting several elements of modern love and modern chivalry.Function of RomanceRomance serves the function of chivalry and adventure in literature. It is considered to be the only genre of literature capable of representing complex and cumulative themes. It is through romance, literature can highlight the cross-referenced as well as integrative nature of the written words.During the middle ages, romance was synonymous with aristocratic literature. It was because romance used to teach morals through the combination of stories of adventure, courtly love, and dedication. It was chivalric literature, which aimed at teaching the aristocracy the rules of behavior, bravery, courage, gentlemanliness, and life in general. In addition, the principle function of romance was to maintain order in society by presenting sources for entertainment.

Humor

Humor is a literary tool that makes audiences laugh, or that intends to induce amusement or laughter. Its purpose is to break the monotony, boredom, and tedium, and make the audience's nerves relax. The writer uses different techniques, tools, words, and even full sentences in order to bring to light new and funny sides of life. Humor is often found in literature, theater, movies, and advertising, where the major purpose is to make the audience happy. Types of HumorThere are several types of devices that create humor. Humor is, in fact, the end product and not the device itself. These devices are:Hyperbole/ExaggerationIncongruitySlapstickSurpriseSarcasmIronyPunExamples of Humor in Literature Example #1: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen)Jane Austen's novel Pride and Prejudice is one of her most popular works. Throughout the entire novel, Jane Austen uses humor. She presents a very hilarious scene between Mr. and Mrs. Bennet. Mrs. Bennet endlessly breaks down and makes complaints for her husband's lack of understanding her nerves, and then he responds by saying:"You mistake me, my dear. I have a high respect for your nerves. They are my old friends. I have heard you mention them with consideration these twenty years at least."He constantly pokes fun at her. Likewise, Austen bursts with humor in the case of Elizabeth and Darcy as, upon their first meeting, both feel a sense of disgust for one another. However, later they enjoy teasing each other.Example #2: The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (By Mark Twain)"No, don't you worry; these country jakes won't ever think of that. Besides, you know, you'll be in costume, and that makes all the difference in the world; Juliet's in a balcony, enjoying the moonlight before she goes to bed, and she's got on her night- gown and her ruffled nightcap. Here are the costumes for the parts."In this example, the duke is unable to notice the silliness of his own actions, instead he makes comments on the low level of understanding of the country jakes.Example #3: To Kill a Mockingbird (By Harper Lee) Harper Lee has inserted humor by creating funny situations with a serious tone in her novel, To Kill a Mockingbird. Many descriptions about Dill are funny and humorous, as he is presented as a larger-than-life person. When we first meet him, the kids take him a puppy. Then he says his name is Charles Baker Harris, saying that he can read, in spite of his age.We also see a lot of humor in Scout's actions, coming from her efforts to comprehend adult ideas, which are very complex for a child like her. Author is showing her to be a very smart kid. A humorous event occurs during Scout's first day at school. Miss Caroline, the teacher, is naive, and "looked, and smelled like a peppermint drop." We meet her when Scout tells her she had already been punished before lunch on her very first day at school, making children mildly suspicious.Example #4: Great Expectations (By Charles Dickens)Charles Dickens derives humor through characterization in his novel Great Expectations. The tone is serious, but there are humorous touches that punctuate the main action. We see a humorous scene in the dinner party when Joe Gargery tells his life story to Pip, and subtly measures gravy on Pip's plate, while Mrs. Gargery gets onto him. Another funny situation happens when Magwitch wants to sleep and asks Pip:"Where will you put me?" [Magwitch] asked, presently. "I must be put somewheres, dear boy."Function of HumorHumor is one of the most effective literary weapons to please the audience, as it develops characters and makes plots useful and memorable. Humor plays many functions in a literary work. It arouses interest among readers, sustains their attention, helps them connect with the characters, emphasizes and relates ideas, and helps the readers picture the situation. Through this tool, writers can also improve the quality of their works by pleasing the audience. Apart from that, the most dominant function of humor is to provide surprise, which not only improves quality, but improves memorable style of a literary piece. The writers learn how to use words for different objectives.

Hyperbaton

Hyperbaton has been derived from a Greek word that means "transposition," and refers to an inversion in the arrangement of common words. It can be defined as a rhetorical device in which the writers play with the normal positions of words, phrases, and clauses in order to create differently arranged sentences, which still suggest a similar meaning. Hyperbaton is also known as a broader version of hypallage. Similarity with AnastropheHyperbaton is similar to anastrophe, which is the inversion of the natural word order, or reversal of the word arrangement, in a sentence with the aim to create rhetorical effect. Anastrophe is also regarded as a simile of hyperbaton.Features of Hyperbaton Words are not arranged in their normal order.It is classified as the figure of disorder.It is employed for emphasis and rhetorical effect.It interrupts the natural flow of sentences.It is greatly used as inflected language.Examples of Hyperbaton in LiteratureExample #1: Wasteland (By T. S. Eliot)"Winter kept us warm, coveringEarth in forgetful snow, feedingA little life with dried tubers....You cannot say, or guess, for you know onlyA heap of broken images, where the sun beats,And the dead tree gives no shelter, the cricket no relief,And the dry stone no sound of water. OnlyThere is shadow under this red rock,(Come in under the shadow of this red rock) ..."The preceding excerpt is one of those which are considered as perfect examples of hyperbaton. Here, the natural order has been changed throughout the text. This inflected language interrupts the flow of sentences.Example #2: Measure for Measure (By William Shakespeare)"Some rise by sin, and some by virtue fall ..."This is only one of the many hyperbaton examples found in Shakespeare's works. Here, he uses the unexpected word order, which is "some by virtue fall," instead of "some fall by virtue." This disordering of words helps in emphasizing the phrase "virtue fall."Example #3: Anyone Lived in a Pretty How Town (By E. E. Cummings) "anyone lived in a pretty how town(with up so floating many bells down)spring summer autumn winterhe sang his didn't he danced his did.Women and men (both little and small)Cared for anyone not at allthey sowed their isn't they reaped their samesun moon stars rainchildren guessed (but only a fewand down they forgot as up they grew ...)when by now and tree by leafshe laughed his joy she cried his griefbird by snow and stir by stillanyone's any was all to hersomeones married their everyoneslaughed their cryings and did their dance(sleep wake hope and then) theysaid their nevers they slept their dream ..."This is a very good example of hyperbaton. The words, phrases, and clauses are stressed in an unexpected way. Also, it is creating complex structures of sentences, and aesthetics of ambiguity.Example #4: A Midsummer Night's Dream (By William Shakespeare)"The eye of man hath not heard, the ear of man hath not seen, man's hand is not able to taste, his tongue to conceive, nor his heart to report, what my dream was..."Here, Shakespeare has employed an unusual and complex word structure. He has transposed the normal word order, such as "his tongue to conceive," and "what my dream was."Example #5: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare)"His coward lips did from their color flyAnd that same eye whose bend doth awe the worldDid lose his luster. I did hear him groan,Ay, and that tongue of his that bade the RomansMark him and write his speeches in their books."Here, Shakespeare plays with the natural position of words, giving depth to the sentence structure. The purpose is to emphasize the phrase, as it gives a sudden turn in the sentence.Function of HyperbatonHyperbaton is employed in literary writing, poetry, film, and all other mediums of visual or textual form. It creates startling and sometimes confusing effects, despite being used as inflected language.In rhyming and metered poems, hyperbaton is employed to fit a sentence into the structure of a poem properly. Besides, when hyperbaton is used properly in sentences, it can result in emphasis at the desired place. Also, the unconventional placement of words and phrases results in intriguing and complex sentence structures.

End Rhyme

If you have ever sung a song or read a poem aloud, you must have encountered end rhymes, because these are a common type of rhyming pattern used in a poetic structure. End rhyme occurs when the last syllables or words in two or more lines rhyme with each other. It is also known as "tail rhyme," and occurs at the ends of the lines. The lines ending in similar sounds are pleasant to hear, and give musical effect to the poem or song. This is called the end rhyme. Types of RhymeThere are several types of rhyme besides end rhyme, of which end rhyme is one of the most commonly used types of poetic rhymes. Other types of rhyme include:End rhyme - It comes at the end of two successive lines.Internal rhyme - It occurs within a single line or a verse.Slant rhyme - The rhyming words sound similar; however, they are often not very close to make a complete rhyme.Eye rhyme - It comprises of similar spellings, though not pronunciation, such as in "rough" and "through."Identical rhyme - It uses the same word having identical sense and sound.Masculine rhyme - It ends on stressed syllables like in "bells" and "hells."Feminine rhyme - It rhymes on one or two unstressed syllables, like "enticing," and "endicing."Monorhyme - It uses just a single rhyme in a stanza such as in Black's poem "silent, silent night."Pararhyme - It uses vowels in identical consonant pairs, such as in the words "groined, and groaned."End Rhyme and Internal Rhyme Internal rhyme uses two rhyming words within a single line of poetry, such as:Example #1: The Raven (By Edgar Allen Poe)"Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary."However, end rhyme comprises of the final words or syllables of the lines such as:Example #2: The Tyger (By William Blake)"Tyger Tyger, burning bright,In the forests of the night;"Examples of End Rhyme in LiteratureMostly, Aesop's fables are considered to have strong moral conclusions. However, almost all literary writings have some morals to be conveyed to readers. Literary works aimed at children are replete with moral lessons. They provide children with positive lessons and guidelines for the future. Maxims like "Be friends with whom you don't like," "Don't judge people by the way they look," and "Slow and steady wins the race" are normally the lessons found behind many stories.Example #1: A Word is Dead (By Emily Dickinson) "A word is deadWhen it is said,Some say.I say it justBegins to liveThat day."As can be seen, the first and the second lines use end rhyme with the words "dead" and "said." The other example of this rhyming pattern is in the third line with the sixth line on the words "say" and "day." Thus, it is the choice of the poet whether to use end rhyme throughout the entire poem for creating strong rhythm, or use some other rhyming pattern.Example #2: In Flanders Fields (By Colonel John McCrae)"In Flanders fields the poppies blowBetween the crosses, row on row,That mark our place; and in the skyThe larks, still bravely singing, fly.Scarce heard amid the guns below."In these lines, the words "blow" and "row" rhyme in the first and second lines, and word "below" in final line also rhyme with them. Similarly, words "sky" and "fly" rhyme in the third and fourth lines. The poet uses end rhyme to create rhythmic flow, as he describes his sorrow for fallen soldiers died in the World War I.Example #3: Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening (By Robert Frost)"Whose woods these are I think I know,His house is in the village, though;He will not see me stopping hereTo watch his woods fill up with snow."In this example, Frost has used end rhyme at the end of the first, second, and fourth lines with the words "know" "though," and "snow." These rhyming lines add flow to the piece, and a pleasant effect to the poem.Example #4: Midstairs (By Virginia Hamilton Adair)"And here on this turning of the stairBetween passion and doubt,I pause and say a double prayer,One for you, and one for you;And so they cancel out."See end rhyme occurring on the final syllables "stair" and "prayer" of the first and third lines; and "doubt" and "out" in the second and fifth lines.Function of End RhymeThe poets often use end rhyme to create rhythm in their works. If they use it throughout the entire poem, then it creates a beautiful rhyming pattern, giving musical quality to the poem, because it adds flow in a perfect rhythmic way. It serves as a strong mnemonic device that facilitates memorization. In addition, its regular use marks off the ending of the lines, thus elucidating metrical structure for the audience. Songwriters also make use of it frequently to make their lyrics sound appealing, and often it becomes easier for the audience to remember.

Imagery

Imagery means to use figurative language to represent objects, actions, and ideas in such a way that it appeals to our physical senses. Usually it is thought that imagery makes use of particular words that create visual representation of ideas in our minds. The word "imagery" is associated with mental pictures. However, this idea is but partially correct. Imagery, to be realistic, turns out to be more complex than just a picture. Read the following examples of imagery carefully:It was dark and dim in the forest.The words "dark" and "dim" are visual images.The children were screaming and shouting in the fields."Screaming" and "shouting" appeal to our sense of hearing, or auditory sense.He whiffed the aroma of brewed coffee."Whiff" and "aroma" evoke our sense of smell, or olfactory sense.The girl ran her hands on a soft satin fabric.The idea of "soft" in this example appeals to our sense of touch, or tactile sense.The fresh and juicy orange is very cold and sweet."Juicy" and "sweet" - when associated with oranges - have an effect on our sense of taste, or gustatory sense.Imagery needs the aid of figures of speech like simile, metaphor, personification, and onomatopoeia, in order to appeal to the bodily senses. Let us analyze how famous poets and writers use imagery in literature.Short Examples of ImageryThe old man took the handful of dust, and sifted it through his fingers.The starry night sky looked so beautiful that it begged him to linger, but he reluctantly left for home.The fragrance of spring flowers made her joyful.The sound of a drum in the distance attracted him.The people traveled long distances to watch the sunset in the north.The stone fell with a splash in the lake.The sound of bat hitting the ball was pleasing to his ear.The chirping of birds heralded spring.There lay refuse heaps on their path that were so smelly that it maddened them.The silence in the room was unnerving.The blind man touched the tree to learn if its skin was smooth or rough.When he was on the way to work, he heard the muffled cry of a woman.The beacons of moonlight bathed the room in ethereal light.The wild gusts of cold wind pierced her body.The burger, aromatic with spices, made his mouth water in anticipation of the first bite.Imagery Examples in Literature Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)Imagery of light and darkness is repeated many times in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. Consider an example from Act I, Scene V:"O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright!It seems she hangs upon the cheek of nightLike a rich jewel in an Ethiope's ear ..."Romeo praises Juliet by saying that she appears more radiant than the brightly lit torches in the hall. He says that at night her face glows like a bright jewel shining against the dark skin of an African. Through the contrasting images of light and dark, Romeo portrays Juliet's beauty.Example #2: To Autumn (By John Keats)John Keats' To Autumn is an ode rich with auditory imagery examples. In the last five lines of his ode he says: "Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies;And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn;Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble softThe redbreast whistles from a garden-croft,And gathering swallows twitter in the skies."The animal sounds in the above excerpt keep appealing to our sense of hearing. We hear the lamb bleating and the crickets chirping. We hear the whistles of the redbreast robin and the twitters of swallows in the skies. Keats call these sounds the song of autumn.Example #3: Once More to the Lake (By E. B. White)In prose, imagery aids writers to accomplish a vivid description of events. Below is an example of an effective use of imagery from E. B. White's Once More to the Lake:"When the others went swimming my son said he was going in, too. He pulled his dripping trunks from the line where they had hung all through the shower and wrung them out. Languidly, and with no thought of going in, I watched him, his hard little body, skinny and bare, saw him wince slightly as he pulled up around his vitals the small, soggy, icy garment. As he buckled the swollen belt, suddenly my groin felt the chill of death."The images depicting the dampness of clothes, in the above lines, convey a sense of the chilly sensation that we get from wet clothes.Example #4: Great Expectations (By Charles Dickens)In Great Expectations, written by Charles Dickens, Pip (the hero of the novel) uses many images to describe a damp morning in a marsh:"It was a rimy morning, and very damp. I had seen the damp lying on the outside of my little window... Now, I saw the damp lying on the bare hedges and spare grass, ... On every rail and gate, wet lay clammy; and the marsh-mist was so thick, that the wooden finger on the post directing people to our village—a direction which they never accepted, for they never came there—was invisible to me until I was quite close under it."The repeated use of the words "damp" and "wet" makes us feel how miserable it was for him that damp and cold morning. The thick "marsh-mist" aids our imagination to visualize the scene of morning in a marshland.Example #5: Goodbye Mr. Chips (By James Hilton)"Brookfield he had liked, almost from the beginning. He remembered that day of his preliminary interview—sunny June, with the air full of flower scents and the plick-plock of cricket on the pitch. Brookfield was playing Barnhurst, and one of the Barnhurst boys, a chubby little fellow, made a brilliant century. Queer that a thing like that should stay in the memory so clearly."This is an excellent example of the use of imagery in Goodbye Mr. Chips by James Hilton. First the word sunny refers to the visual imagery. The flower scent refers to the sense of smell, and then the plick-plock refers to the sense of hearing.Example #6: Daffodils (By William Wordsworth)"I wandered lonely as a cloudThat floats on high o'er vales and hills,When all at once I saw a crowd,A host, of golden daffodils;Beside the lake, beneath the trees,Fluttering and dancing in the breeze."This is a very good example of imagery in Wordsworth's Daffodils. The poet uses the sense of sight to create a host of golden daffodils beside the lake. Their fluttering and dancing also refers to the sight.Example #7: Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening (By Robert Frost)"The woods are lovely, dark and deep,But I have promises to keep ... "Robert Frost uses visual imagery in these lines of his famous poem as, "the woods are lovely, dark and deep."Example #8: My November Guest (By Robert Frost)"My Sorrow, when she's here with me,Thinks these dark days of autumn rainAre beautiful as days can be;She loves the bare, the withered tree;She walked the sodden pasture lane."This poem by Robert Frost is yet another good example of imagery. In the second line, the poet uses dark days, which is an instance of the use of visual imagery. In the fourth line, the bare, withered tree uses the imagery of sight. In the fifth line, the sodden pasture is also an instance of tactile imagery.Function of ImageryThe function of imagery in literature is to generate a vibrant and graphic presentation of a scene that appeals to as many of the reader's senses as possible. It aids the reader's imagination to envision the characters and scenes in the literary piece clearly. Apart from the above-mentioned function, images drawn by using figures of speech like metaphor, simile, personification, and onomatopoeia, serve the function of beautifying a piece of literature.

Cacophony

If we speak literally, cacophony points to a situation in which there is a mixture of harsh and inharmonious sounds. In literature, however, the term refers to the use of words with sharp, harsh, hissing, and unmelodious sounds - primarily those of consonants - to achieve desired results. Common Cacophony ExamplesIn everyday life, an example of cacophony would be the amalgamation of different sounds you hear in a busy city street or market. You hear sounds of vehicles, announcements on loudspeakers, music, and chatter of people, or even a dog barking at the same time and without any harmony. You can rightly point to the situation as being the cacophony of a busy street or market. We can notice the manifestation of cacophony in language as well. For instance, in the sentence,"I detest war because cause of war is always trivial."The phrase "because cause" is cacophonic as because is followed by the word cause, which has a similar sound, but different meaning. Generally, it sounds unpleasant as the same sound is repeated in two different words.Similarly, a discordant sound of a musical band, tuning up their musical instruments, is an example of cacophony.Cacophony and Euphony Cacophony is opposite to euphony, which is the use of words having pleasant and harmonious effects. Generally, the vowels, the semi-vowels, and the nasal consonants (e.g. l, m, n, r, y) are considered to be euphonious. Cacophony, on the other hand, uses consonants in combinations that require explosive delivery (e.g., p, b, d, g, k, ch-, sh- etc.).Examples of Cacophony in LiteratureIn literature, the unpleasantness of cacophony is utilized by writers to present dreadful or distasteful situations. Let us look at a few Cacophony examples in literature:Example #1: Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There (By Lewis Carroll)Abundant use of cacophonic words can be found in Lewis Carroll's nonsense poem Jabberwocky, in his novel Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There." 'Twas brillig, and the slithy tovesDid gyre and gimble in the wabe;All mimsy were the borogoves,anAnd the mome raths outgrabe."Beware the Jabberwock, my son!The jaws that bite, the claws that catch!Beware the Jubjub bird, and shunThe frumious Bandersnatch!"In the excerpt, we see a collection of nonsense words, which are at the same time unmelodious. After reading the poem, Alice, the main character of the novel, gives her impression, which clearly reflects the purpose of the poem. She says:"Somehow it seems to fill my head with ideas—only I don't exactly know what they are! However, somebody killed something: that's clear, at any rate."Example #2: The Bridge (By Hart Crane)Another example of cacophony is found in Hart Crane's poem The Bridge:"The nasal whine of power whips a new universe...Where spouting pillars spoor the evening sky,Under the looming stacks of the gigantic power houseStars prick the eyes with sharp ammoniac proverbs,New verities, new inklings in the velvet hummedOf dynamos, where hearing's leash is strummed...Power's script, - wound, bobbin-bound, refined -Is stopped to the slap of belts on booming spools, spurredInto the bulging bouillon, harnessed jelly of the stars."The disorder and confusion of the industrial world has been expressed here by the writer, through deliberate selection of cacophonic words and phrases.Example #3: Gulliver's Travels (By Jonathan Swift) Look at the following excerpt from Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels:"And being no stranger to the art of war, I have him a description of cannons, culverins, muskets, carabines, pistols, bullets, powder, swords, bayonets, battles, sieges, retreats, attacks, undermines, countermines, bombardments, sea-fights..."In order to describe the destructive consequences of war, the writer chooses words and arranges them in an order that produces an effect that is unmelodious, harsh, and jarring, which corresponds with the subject matter.Example #4: Rime to the Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Taylor Coleridge)Read the following lines from Coleridge's Rime to the Ancient Mariner:"With throats unslaked, with black lips baked,Agape they heard me call."These lines illustrate cacophony by using the words black, baked and agape, which corresponds with the severity of the situation faced by the Mariner and other people on board.Function of CacophonyWriters use cacophony as a tool to describe a discordant situation using discordant words. The use of such words allows readers to picture and feel the unpleasantness of the situation the writer has described through words.

Speaker

In writing, the speaker is the voice that speaks behind the scene. In fact, it is the narrative voice that speaks of a writer's feelings or situation. It is not necessary that a poet is always the speaker, because sometimes he may be writing from a different perspective, or may be in the voice of another race, gender, or even a material object. It usually appears as a persona or voice in a poem. Read on to learn more about speaker in literature. Examples of Speaker in LiteratureExample #1: The Road Not Taken (by Robert Frost)The speaker in Frost's poem "The Road Not Taken" is a conflicted person, who does not tell anything about himself. However, the readers of this poem know that he is undergoing a big decision, that he has chosen a single path according to which he is directing his life, and this splits into two options ahead.Falling leaves and yellow woods are metaphors for the speaker's life, showing the downfall of his life. At this stage of life, it is not possible to return and make a new decision, because he knows the time is gone. The speaker is impulsive and adventurous, the reason that he has chosen the less traveled path. He is feeling a little regret, while his tone is also a bit sad.Example #2: Ode to Nightingale (by John Keats)In his poem "Ode to Nightingale," the speaker is Keats himself. He has played with tricky language, which proved lucky for him. He has managed to persuade himself that he has moved to a new setting and completely new perspective. He must have been under huge pressure that he wanted to escape into fantasy and leave this world. In fact, he is feeling down in life as a whole, and readers recognize that, at this point, he would try to end it all.However, readers are not convinced by his conversation about death - that it would be easy - and he himself does not seem to be convinced either. It all seems merely a show. The speaker also has displayed his knowledge of the Bible and the Greek myth in this tale. He has an active imagination, is well-read, and wants his readers to know it.Example #3: Annabel Lee (by Edgar Allan Poe) The speaker in "Annabel Lee," by Edgar Allan Poe, is the lover of Annabel Lee. The speaker seems to be engaging, charming, and someone whom a girl would meet and fall in love with right away. He is someone who would tell stories. As readers move on reading the poem, they start realizing that there is something wrong.The readers begin to feel the speaker will return to a particular subject, and would rage about something bad that may have happened to him. They notice a little sparkle in his eyes that makes readers a bit uncomfortable, because he fascinates them, and he cannot be ignored. Also, his voice has something powerful in it that draws the reader in.Example #4: A Modest Proposal (by Jonathan Swift)In "A Modest Proposal," Swift wants his readers to view the speaker as a reasonable and compassionate man that has a genuine interest in solving the problems and issues of the Irish people. In the first eight paragraphs, readers meet a kind and considerate man, who has keen insight into their troubles, which he will address shortly. In doing so, he moves from a rational approach to the problems, toward more sarcastic view.Through his speaker, Swift suggests a solution to poverty that makes use of children of less fortunate and poor families as a food source. By expressing this idea through the speaker, the author uses sarcasm, exaggeration, and imagery to put into words his disgust for the Irish society. It is, in fact, Swift himself who speaks through the voice of a speaker. The role of Swift's speaker is to give readers a glimpse of the underlying social problems in Ireland. This gets the point across, as well as challenges the readers to think about the plight of those less fortunate, rather than thinking only of themselves.Function The role of a speaker is one of the most important aspects in a written work. A speaker allows a more active voice, and plays the role of the mouthpiece in conveying the ideas of a writer or a poet to the audience. Just like actors, a speaker tells, or acts out directly, an account of what exactly occurs. It is found in different forms of writing, but is very common in poetry and novels.

Inciting Incident

Inciting incident in a plot is an event or a point that arrives at the beginning of a play, story book, or a film that disturbs the actions and life of a protagonist, and sets him to pursue the mission vigorously. It originates from a Latin word, incitāre, which means to start up, to put something into rapid motion, or to stimulate, or encourage something or some character. Inciting incident starts the action of a story, and sets the main question readers want to know. For instance, the inciting incident of William Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" happens when the lovers meet and fall in love at first sight at a ball. You can easily recognize it because it introduces the major conflict between protagonist and antagonist.Examples of Inciting Incident in LiteratureExample #1: The Most Dangerous Game (by Richard Connell)The inciting incident of Richard Connell's "The Most Dangerous Game" occurs in the evening, when Rainsford and General Zaroff dine and discuss hunting. It starts off as a friendly conversation about their hunting adventure; however, it ends with a confession by General Zaroff that he kills people as a "game," and for fun while hunting. Soon after this confession, Zaroff proclaims that he wishes to hunt Rainsford. This revelation takes a catastrophic turn that leaves Rainsford in serious danger.Example #2: Hamlet (by William Shakespeare)"Let me not think on't! Frailty, thy name is woman —A little month, or ere those shoes were oldWith which she follow'd my poor father's bodyLike Niobe, all tears - why she, even she —O God! a beast that wants discourse of reasonWould have mourn'd longer —"The inciting incident in Hamlet is the death of King Hamlet, which opens the play with the characters affected by this problem. In the very first Act, Hamlet is thrown into despair due to Gertrude's impulsive move to marry Claudius, his uncle. She could not wait a month, an act which drives Hamlet crazy, thus creating a serious problem that needs resolution.Example #3: Star Wars (by George Lucas) In "Star Wars," the inciting incident occurs when Darth Vader attacks the ship of Princess Leia. Prior to this event, civil war was going on there. It happens when the Empire exhibits its true color by boarding a ship illegally, which is supposed to be on a "diplomatic mission." This creates a real problem in the story. The Empire becomes cruel in its every effort to restrict rebellion; nevertheless this inciting incident shows us the beginning of deadly tensions, more of which are to come.Example #4: The Sixth Sense (by M. Night Shyamalan)The inciting incident in "The Sixth Sense" happens with the attack of Vincent on Malcom. Without the gunshot, the story would have no strong plot, and Malcom would have had no compulsion to meet Cole. The turning point in the first act comes with a revelation of Cole that he might face the same vicious tendencies which Vincent did. Taking his steps back and figuring out that Malcom would not help him, increases the problems and tensions caused by the point that Cole is just a "disturbed" child.Example #5: Death of a Salesman (by Arthur Miller)"WILLY: It's all right. I came back.LINDA: Why? What happened? (Slight pause.) Did somethinghappen, Willy?WILLY: No, nothing happened.LINDA: You didn't smash the car, did you?WILLY (with casual irritation):I said nothing happened. Didn't you hear me?LINDA: Don't you feel well?"This play begins with Willy coming home. The repetition is a good technique to let audience notice how important a question is. The same happens in the following opening dialogue, which begins the inciting incident of this play. It sets up the main question among the readers, which is "What's wrong?"Function of Inciting Incident Since inciting incident means to stimulate, it catalyzes the protagonist to take action or go into motion. It jolts the protagonist out of his daily routine as it is an event that sparks the fuse of a plot. It is also necessary to happen for a narrative hook to kick in. In addition, it brings the major question, suspense, as well as action in the story. Thus, the main focus is main character and readers. You can find it in plays, movies, novels, and short stories.

Jargon

Jargon is a literary term that is defined as the use of specific phrases and words in a particular situation, profession, or trade. These specialized terms are used to convey hidden meanings accepted and understood in that field. Jargon examples are found in literary and non-literary pieces of writing. The use of jargon becomes essential in prose or verse or some technical pieces of writing, when the writer intends to convey something only to the readers who are aware of these terms. Therefore, jargon was taken in early times as a trade language, or as a language of a specific profession, as it is somewhat unintelligible for other people who do not belong to that particular profession. In fact, specific terms were developed to meet the needs of the group of people working within the same field or occupation.Jargon and SlangJargon is sometimes wrongly confused with slang, and people often take it in the same sense but a difference is always there.Slang is a type of informal category of language developed within a certain community, and consists of words or phrases whose literal meanings are different than the actual meanings. Hence, it is not understood by people outside of that community or circle. Slang is more common in spoken language than written.Jargon, on the other hand, is broadly associated with a subject, occupation, or business that makes use of standard words or phrases, and frequently comprised of abbreviations, such as LOC (loss of consciousness), or TRO (temporary restraining order). However, unlike slang, its terms are developed and composed deliberately for the convenience of a specific profession, or section of society. We can see the difference in the two sentences given below.Did you hook up with him? (Slang)Getting on a soapbox (Jargon)Examples of Jargon in Literature Example #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)Historical Legal JargonHAMLET to HORATIO:"Why, may not that be the skull of a lawyer? Where be his quiddities now, his quillities, his cases, his tenures, and his tricks? Why does he suffer this mad knave now to knock him about the sconce with a dirty shovel, and will not tell him of his action of battery? Hum! This fellow might be in's time a great buyer of land, with his statutes, his recognizances, his fines, his double vouchers, his recoveries: is this the fine of his fines, and the recovery of his recoveries, to have his fine pate full of fine dirt? Will his vouchers vouch him no more of his purchases and double ones too, than the length and breadth of a pair of indentures? The very conveyances of his lands will scarcely lie in this box; and must the inheritor himself have no more, ha?"Here, you can see the use of words specifically related to the field of law, marked in bold. These are legal words used at the time of Shakespeare.Example #2: Patient Education: Nonallergic Rhinitis (By Robert H Fletcher and Phillip L Lieberman)Medical Jargon"Certain medications can cause or worsen nasal symptoms (especially congestion). These include the following: birth control pills, some drugs for high blood pressure (e.g., alpha blockers and beta blockers), antidepressants, medications for erectile dysfunction, and some medications for prostatic enlargement. If rhinitis symptoms are bothersome and one of these medications is used, ask the prescriber if the medication could be aggravating the condition."This passage is full of medical jargon, such as those shown in bold. Perhaps only those in the medical community would fully understand all of these terms.Example #3: Marek v Lane (By U.S. Supreme Court Ruling) Modern Legal Jargon"In August 2008, 19 individuals brought a putative class action lawsuit in the U. S. District Court for the Northern District of California against Facebook and the companies that had participated in Beacon, alleging violations of various federal and state privacy laws. The putative class comprised only those individuals whose personal information had been obtained and disclosed by Beacon during the approximately one-month period in which the program's default setting was opt out rather than opt in. The complaint sought damages and various forms of equitable relief, including an injunction barring the defendants from continuing the program."This ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court is full of modern legal jargon. The terms shown in bold are a good example of jargon that is not likely to be understood by the typical person.Function of JargonThe use of jargon is significant in prose and verse. It seems unintelligible to the people who do not know the meanings of the specialized terms. Jargon in literature is used to emphasize a situation, or to refer to something exotic. In fact, the use of jargon in literature shows the dexterity of the writer, of having knowledge of other spheres. Writers use jargon to make a certain character seem real in fiction, as well as in plays and poetry.

Juxtaposition

Juxtaposition is a literary technique in which two or more ideas, places, characters, and their actions are placed side by side in a narrative or a poem, for the purpose of developing comparisons and contrasts. In literature, juxtaposition is a useful device for writers to portray their characters in great detail, to create suspense, and to achieve a rhetorical effect. It is a human quality to comprehend one thing easily by comparing it to another. Therefore, a writer can make readers sense "goodness" in a particular character by placing him or her side-by-side with a character that is predominantly "evil." Consequently, goodness in one character is highlighted by evil in the other character. Juxtaposition in this case is useful in the development of characters.Examples of Juxtaposition in LiteratureExample #1: Paradise Lost (By John Milton)John Milton's Paradise Lost is one of the narrative poems that can be used as an example of juxtaposition. This well-crafted literary piece is clearly based on the juxtaposition of two characters: God and Satan. Frequently in the poem, the bad qualities of Satan and the good qualities of God are placed side-by-side, and the comparison made brings to the surface the contrast between the two characters. The juxtaposition in this poem helps us to reach the conclusion that Satan deserved his expulsion from the paradise because of his unwillingness to submit to God's will.Example #2: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens)Charles Dickens uses the technique of juxtaposition in the opening line of his novel A Tale of Two Cities:"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way ..."In order to give us an idea of the factors responsible for the French Revolution, Dickens uses juxtaposition throughout the novel. Here, the haves and have-nots are put side-by-side to highlight the presence of severe disparity and discord in the then-French society, which ultimately paved the way for the revolution. By examining the given juxtaposition, readers can vividly imagine the calamitous atmosphere before the revolution, and understand its need at that time.Example #3: Do not Go Gentle into that Good Night (By Dylan Thomas) We can see juxtaposition examples in poems, too."Grave men, near death, who see with blinding sightBlind eyes could blaze like meteors and be gay,Rage, rage against the dying of the light.And you, my father, there on the sad height,Curse, bless, me now with your fierce tears, I pray.Do not go gentle into that good night.Rage, rage against the dying of the light."In Dylan Thomas' poem Do not Go Gentle into that Good Night, the speaker is asking his father not to give up, like ordinary dying men, but to fight against it to survive. The juxtaposition is in the action of struggle for life, to put off death by not merely lying down to wait for death.Example #4: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)Juxtaposition is a literary device that William Shakespeare uses most commonly in his play Romeo and Juliet. We notice the juxtaposition of light and darkness repeatedly. Consider an example from Act I, Scene V:"O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright!It seems she hangs upon the cheek of nightLike a rich jewel in an Ethiope's ear;"Here, the radiant face of Juliet is juxtaposed with a black African's dark skin. Romeo admires Juliet by saying that her face seems brighter than brightly lit torches in the hall. He says that, at night, her face glows like a bright jewel that shines against the dark skin of an African.Function of Juxtaposition Writers employ the literary technique of juxtaposition in order to surprise their readers and evoke their interest, by means of developing a comparison between two dissimilar things by placing them side by side. The comparison drawn adds vividness to a given image, controls the pacing of the poem or a narrative, and provides a logical connection between two vague concepts.

Kinesthesia

Kinesthesia is a type of imagery that is used as a poetic device. It is a poetic device that gives a feeling of natural, or physical bodily movement or action (like a heartbeat, a pulse, and breathing). It also refers to tension along with the movement. Since the word kinetic means motion or movement, kinesthetic imagery is the representation of the actions and movements of an object or a character. Famous authors William Shakespeare and William Wordsworth, respectively, wrote the following examples of kinesthesia:"This sensible warm motion to becomeA kneaded clod; and the delighted spiritTo bathe in fiery floods, or to resideIn thrilling region of thick-ribbed ice..."(Measure for Measure, by William Shakespeare)Above, Shakespeare presents the phrases "warm motion," and "clod" as kinesthetic imagery."Ten thousand saw I at a glance,Tossing their heads in sprightly dance..."(I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud, by ‎William Wordsworth)Classification of KinesthesiaKinesthetic imagery is further divided into various categories:Touch: Like running fingers on silk fabricPhysical movement: Gives feelings of involvement in an activity, like walking on grassTemperature: For example, it might involve sunlight falling over the bodyFeelings: Internal feelings, like being angry, sad, happy, peaceful, and calm.Examples of Kinesthesia in Literature Example #1: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens)"With a wild rattle and clatter, and an inhuman abandonment of consideration not easy to be understood in these days, the carriage dashed through streets and swept round corners, with women screaming before it, and men clutching each other and clutching children out of its way. At last, swooping at a street corner by a fountain, one of its wheels came to a sickening little jolt, and there was a loud city from a number of voices, and the horses reared and plunged ..."In this example, kinesthesia is used as the movements of a carriage that is constantly moving along the streets, and the physical actions of women and children. These movements are shown in bold words.Example #2: Meeting At Night (By Robert Browning)"The gray sea and the long black land;And the yellow half-moon large and low;And startled little waves that leapIn fiery ringlets from their sleep,As I gain the cove with pushing prow,And quench its speed i' the slushy sand.Then a mile of warm sea-scented beach;Three fields to cross till a farm appears;A tap at the pane, the quick sharp scratchAnd blue spurt of a lighted match,And a voice less loud, thro' its joys and fears,Than the two hearts beating each to each!"The speaker's descriptions of the physical features of the landscape are good Kinesthesia examples. Kinesthesia is employed in the lines in bold. The speaker is sailing in a boat, which is described as a "pushing prow." There are other words suggesting physical actions, like "speed," "cross," and finally, "two hearts beating."Example #3: I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud (By W. Wordsworth) "Continuous as the stars that shineAnd twinkle on the milky way,They stretched in never-ending lineAlong the margin of a bay:Ten thousand saw I at a glance,Tossing their heads in sprightly dance."Wordsworth describes the beautiful daffodils and their movement as dancing. He explains how they grow, and their physical movement. Kinesthesia is used as in words, such as "stretched," "tossing" their heads, and "dance."Example #4: Hyperion (By John Keats)"At this, through all his bulk an agonyCrept gradual, from the feet unto the crown,Like a lithe serpent vast and muscularMaking slow way, with head and neck convulsedFrom over-strained might..."Here, kinesthetic imagery is used as an awareness of the movement and muscle tension. This excerpt is a perfect example of kinesthesia. Keats beautifully describes muscular agony, and feelings of exhaustion.Function of KinesthesiaKinesthesia is used in poetry and prose to describe the vivid physical actions or movements of characters and objects. It is used as a graphic and vibrant technique of scenes that appeal to the senses of the readers. Besides, it helps the imagination of a reader to envision the scenes and characters in literary works. Kinesthesia could be used in two forms: descriptive and figurative. In addition, writers not only employ kinesthesia for physical movements, they also create images based on the intensity of feelings and depth of meaning.

Memoir

Memoir is a written factual account of somebody's life. It comes from the French word mémoire, which means "memory," or "reminiscence." This literary technique tells a story about the experiences of someone's life. A literary memoir is usually about a specific theme, or about a part of someone's life. It is a story with a proper narrative shape, focus, and subject matter, involving reflection on some particular event or place. Memoirs are often associated with popular personalities, such as celebrities, sportsmen, soldiers, singers, and writers. It allows making a connection with what the audience finds captivating, interesting, appealing, and engaging.Memoir and AutobiographyMemoir falls under the category of autobiography, but is used as its sub-genre. The major difference between memoir and autobiography is that a memoir is a centralized and more specific storytelling, while an autobiography spans the entire life of a person with intricate details such as the childhood, family history, education, and profession. A memoir is specific and focused, telling the story of somebody's life, focusing on an important event that occurred at a specific time and place.Examples of Memoir in Literature Example #1: A Moveable Feast (By Ernest Hemingway)Ernest Hemingway was an acclaimed celebrity during the times when the public treated American writers like movie stars. His memoir A Moveable Feast was published after his death in 1964. This memoir is a collection of stories about his time spent in Paris as a writer in 1920s, before attaining popularity. During these days, he was acquainted with many other famous writers, including Ezra Pound, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Gertrude Stein.Example #2: Speak Memory (By Vladimir Nabokov)This memoir is about the description of Nabokov's childhood, and the years he spent before moving to America in 1940; however, it is not the exact reason of writing this memoir. More notably, this book is about a tale of his art, as it serves as a model of that art. In addition, it includes themes, imagery, and symbols that build up a structure in the minds of readers besides making up the book. Like always, Nabokov's prose writing is flawless, brilliant, and overwhelming, while his playful writing style makes his work seem fascinating.Example #3: Homage to Catalonia (By George Orwell) This is Orwell's gripping tale of his days during the Spanish Civil War. He has described it with his typical trademark of journalistic wink, which is one of his best works. Honest and unwavering, Orwell narrates his personal experience without inducing any agenda, recording different things from that era as he saw them. Philip Mairet said of this account that the work shows ]people a heart of innocence living in revolutionary days.Example #4: Maus (By Art Spiegelman)Although we can find many deeply affecting memoirs to make this list, Maus is one of the most well-liked memoirs, with its distressing story covered with perfect illustrations by Spiegelman. We might think that imagining different characters appearing with animal faces would make the story horrible and less intense and more irritating, it is rather the opposite. If we know the comic style, we learn that blank iconic faces and the outlook of the mice in this memoir allows the audience to put themselves in their shoes, to understand the story more easily.Function of MemoirMemoir has been around since ancient times. Perhaps Julius Caesar, who wrote and depicted his personal experiences about epic battles, was the first memoirist. Later, it became a popular and acclaimed literary genre. Memoir serves to preserve history through a person' eyes. Through memoir, celebrities also tell harsh sides of their careers. Rock stars tell their fans about tough days spent in distress, drug addicts reveal their struggle in seeking normal life, soldiers write war experiences, people who are mentally ill describe ups and downs to achieve clarity, and authors tell particular events that happened before their eyes. Hence, the function of memoir is to provide a window for the audience to have a look into the lives of other people.

Metalepsis

Metalepsis is derived from the Greek word metōnymia, which means "substitution" or "sharing." It is a figure of speech like metonymy or metaphor. However, it is an advanced form of figurative speech in which one thing refers to another thing that is only slightly related to it. There are two ways to make this association. One is through showing causal relationship to seemingly unrelated things. The other is through indirect intermediate replacement of terms. Features of MetalepsisMetalepsis is a reference in which a phrase or a word taken from figurative speech is employed in a new context. Metalepsis is also known as transumption. According to Werner Wolf, "It is a fictional representation that consists of different levels and worlds, among which unconventional transgression takes place."Metalepsis often conveys metaphorical expression by using a word associated with a thing that it is being referred to. In addition, this figure of speech could be a reference for a literary work, such as if somebody says, "Something smells in Denmark," it would be considered to be a reference to Shakespeare's famous play Hamlet.Examples of Metalepsis in Literature Example #1: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare)"Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow,Creeps in this petty pace from day to day,To the last syllable of recorded time;And all our yesterdays have lighted foolsThe way to dusty death. . . .Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player...."There are many examples of metalepsis in Shakespeare's works, since he multiplies metaphors and duplicates figures of speech in various guises. He works on one figure, and then moves onto the next and continues from where he started off. There is a concatenation of different figures that quickly pile on one another as shown in bold.Example #2: Out, Out (By Robert Frost)"As he swung toward them holding up the handHalf in appeal, but half as if to keepThe life from spilling..."In these lines, the poet makes reference to keeping the "life from spilling," meaning the spilling of blood. He makes a connection between blood and life, which means too much loss of blood shows loss of human life.Example #3: Lycidas (By John Milton) "But now my oat proceeds,And listens to the herald of the seaThat came in Neptune's plea,He asked the waves, and asked the felon winds,What hard mishap hath doomed this gentle swain?"In the passage above, Milton uses "oat" as a musical instrument that is made from an oat stalk. Therefore, the word "oat" is employed as a reference to the song that the poet composes beside the ocean.Example #4: Gone with the Wind (By Margaret Mitchell)"I'm mighty glad Georgia waited till after Christmas before it secedes or it would have ruined the Christmas parties."Here, Georgia is used to develop a relationship between politicians, government, and citizens. It is now common to use the name of a country to refer to its government and its whole nation.Example #5: Dr. Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe)"Was this the face that launched a thousand shipsand burnt the topless towers of Ilium? "A reference is made here to a mythological figure called Helen of Troy, who was abducted by Paris, which led to the idea of using a thousand ships for starting the Trojan war. Here, the word "face" is used as metalepsis.Function of MetalepsisGenerally, it is employed in a literary text to develop symbolism and metaphor, by giving profound meanings to ideas and objects. By using metalepsis, the text shows deeper and hidden meanings, and therefore draws the attention of readers. In addition, it adds more poetic effect to the piece of writing. The readers are provided with allusions using another figure of speech in order to make them understand the hidden meaning communicated through it.Also, it is used in literary comedies because the words in allusion could cause a comical exaggeration. However, in narratology, metalepsis plays with the structure of a fictional book, since the narrator may seem separated from the action, but he interacts in the middle of the story to create heightened effect and deeper meanings for the readers. A survey of metalepsis examples will help us understand the functions of this device.

Metaphysical

Metaphysical is a philosophical concept used in literature to describe the things that are beyond the description of physical existence. It is intended to elucidate the fundamental nature of being and the world and is often used in the form of argument to describe the intellectual or emotional state an individual goes through. It is deliberately inserted to make the audience think about the things they had never imagined. Although it is often considered a complex phenomenon, it, however, plays a pivotal role in advancing the idea of the text. In literature, metaphysical is often used with poetry. It is a type of poetry written during the seventeenth century. Etymologically, "metaphysical" is a combination of two words 'meta' and 'physical.' The meanings are clear that it deals with the things that are beyond this the existence of the physical world.Features of Metaphysical PoetryMetaphysical texts are based on wit and often deal with serious questions about the existence of God and the tendency of human beings to perceive this world.In metaphysical poetry, serious issues are discussed with a touch of humor. In this sense, it makes the seriousness a bit light in intensity.Metaphysical poetry elevates the readers of their normal existence to make them question the unquestionable.Metaphysical texts offer comparisons of unlikely things and are loaded with conceits, paradoxes, irony, andThey are argumentative, intellectual, realistic and rational in their approach.Examples of Metaphysical elements in Literature Example #1A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning by John Donne"If they be two, they are two soAs stiff twin compasses are two;Thy soul, the fixed foot, makes no showTo move, but doth, if the other do.And though it in the center sit,Yet when the other far doth roam,It leans and hearkens after it,And grows erect, as that comes home.Such wilt thou be to me, who must,Like th' other foot, obliquely run;Thy firmness makes my circle just,And makes me end where I begun.The poem appreciates the beauty of spiritual love. The poet has painted a vivid picture of his eternal bond that keeps him attached to his beloved even when they are apart. This is a very good example of metaphysical text in literature as Donne has used metaphysical conceits to show the comparison between the spiritual aspect of a person and a physical thing in the world. He has compared his spiritual and holy love with the feet of a geometrical compass.Example #2To His Coy Mistress by Andrew MarvellNow therefore, while the youthful hueSits on thy skin like morning dew,And while thy willing soul transpiresAt every pore with instant fires,Now let us sport us while we may,And now, like amorous birds of prey,Rather at once our time devourThan languish in his slow-chapped power.Let us roll all our strength and allOur sweetness up into one ball,And tear our pleasures with rough strifeThrough the iron gates of life:Thus, though we cannot make our sunStand still, yet we will make him run.The poet, being an obsessive lover, has used strenuous argument throughout the poem to convince his shy mistress to be intimate with him. He provides different arguments to persuade her. He compares speedy time with "wingèd chariot hurrying near" and compares his slowly growing love with "vegetable love." These are all abstract ideas presented through a cascade of images. The examples of the metaphysical argument are shown through the use of puns, paradoxes, classical myth, historical and Biblical references.Example #3 The Retreat by Henry VaughanO, how I long to travel back,And tread again that ancient track!That I might once more reach that plainWhere first I left my glorious train,From whence th' enlightened spirit seesThat shady city of palm trees.But, ah! my soul with too much stayIs drunk, and staggers in the way.Some men a forward motion love;But I by backward steps would move,And when this dust falls to the urn,In that state I came, return.The poem comprises the sentiments of the speaker who wants to retreat to his innocent childhood. The central metaphysical characteristic of the poem is the conceit he has used to compare life to a long journey. Through this conceit, the poet unfolds a philosophical thought that the soul relates to heaven before this earthly existence. The poem expresses his profound hope that he might venture back to the state he initially came from.Example #4The Pulley by George Herbert"When God at first made man,Having a glass of blessings standing by,"Let us," said he, "pour on him all we can.Let the world's riches, which dispersèd lie,Contract into a span."So strength first made a way;Then beauty flowed, then wisdom, honour, pleasure.When almost all was out, God made a stay,Perceiving that, alone of all his treasure,Rest in the bottom lay."This poem is one of the famous metaphysical religious poems. The poet has used a mechanical device, pulley, as a metaphysical conceit to reveal the truth of why human beings are so restless in the world. He says that wisdom, strength, pleasure, honor and several other blessings are the greatest rewards God has bestowed upon man. But when humans are at rest, they gradually lose all these characteristics. To pull them back on track, God should deprive them of rest. However, this bizarre and mysterious philosophy is possible only in metaphysical poetry.Metaphysical Poetry Meaning and FunctionMetaphysical poetry serves as a pause for the audience. It provides them with an opportunity to ponder over the ideas that are not commonly seen and are unique. The challenging approach of metaphysical poetry allows the readers to concentrate on the things that exist beyond this world. It also allows the writers to express their inner thoughts in the verses though higher cognitive skills are required to understand the concepts and abstract ideas presented in metaphysical texts.

Oxymoron

Oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined to create an effect. The common oxymoron phrase is a combination of an adjective proceeded by a noun with contrasting meanings, such as "cruel kindness," or "living death". However, the contrasting words/phrases are not always glued together. The contrasting ideas may be spaced out in a sentence, such as, "In order to lead, you must walk behind."Difference Between Oxymoron and ParadoxIt is important to understand the difference between an oxymoron and a paradox. A paradox may consist of a sentence, or even a group of sentences. An oxymoron, on the other hand, is a combination of two contradictory or opposite words. A paradox seems contradictory to the general truth, but it does contain an implied truth. An oxymoron, however, may produce a dramatic effect, but does not make literal sense. Examples of oxymoron are found both in casual conversations and in literature.Common Examples of Oxymoron Open secretTragic comedySeriously funnyAwfully prettyFoolish wisdomOriginal copiesLiquid gasThe above oxymoron examples produce a comical effect. Thus, it is a lot of fun to use them in your everyday speech.Short Examples of Oxymoron in SpeechThere was a love-hate relationship between the two neighboring states.The professor was giving a lecture on virtual reality.Paid volunteers were working for the company.The channel was repeating the old news again and again.The contractor was asked to give the exact estimate of the project.A lot of soldiers have been killed in friendly fire.The doctor was absolutely unsure of the nature of his illness.All the politicians agreed to disagree.There was an employee in the office who was regularly irregular.The hero of the play was so dejected that he was the perfect embodiment of being alone in a crowd.The heads of state gathered to determine an approximate solution to the crisis.The green pasture surrounded by hills was teeming with a deafening silence.The political scientist was asked to give his unbiased opinion on the current issue.The CEO of a multinational company said, "We have been awfully lucky to have survived the disastrous effects of the recent economic recession."The program was not liked by the people, for a lot of unpopular celebrities were invited.Examples of Oxymoron in LiteratureExample #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)Why, then, O brawling love! O loving hate!O anything, of nothing first create!O heavy lightness! Serious vanity!Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms!Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health!Still-waking sleep, that is not what it is!This love feel I, that feel no love in this.Dost thou not laugh?We notice a series of oxymora being employed when Romeo confronts the love of an inaccessible woman. An intense emotional effect is produced, to highlight his mental conflict by the use of contradictory pairs of words, such as "hating love," "heavy lightness," "bright smoke," "cold fire," and "sick health".Example #2: Lancelot and Elaine (By Alfred Lord Tennyson)The shackles of love straiten'd himHis honour rooted in dishonoured stoodAnd faith unfaithful kept him falsely trueWe clearly notice the use of oxymoron in the phrases "shackles... straiten'd," "honour... dishonor," "faith unfaithful," and "falsely true".Example #3: Petrarch's 134th sonnet (By Sir Thomas Wyatt) I find no peace, and all my war is doneI fear and hope, I burn and freeze like ice,I flee above the wind, yet can I not arise;The contradicting ideas of "war ... peace," "burn ... freeze," and "flee above ... not rise" produce a dramatic effect in the above-mentioned lines.Example #4: Essays of Criticism (By Alexander Pope)The bookful blockhead ignorantly read,With loads of learned lumber in his head,With his own tongue still edifies his ears,And always list'ning to himself appears.The above lines provide fine evidence of Pope's witticism. The oxymora "bookful blockhead" and "ignorantly read" describe a person who reads a lot, but does not understand what he reads, and does not employ his reading to improve his character.Example #5: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)Shakespeare makes use of oxymora in his plays to develop a paradox.I will bestow him, and will answer wellThe death I gave him. So, again, good night.I must be cruel, only to be kind:Thus bad begins and worse remains behind.One word more, good lady.In the above lines taken from "Hamlet," Shakespeare draws two contradictory ideas: "be cruel ... to be kind". The contradiction is understood in the context of the play. Hamlet wants to kill Claudius, the murderer of his father, who has married his mother. Hamlet does not want his mother to be the beloved of his father's murderer. Therefore, he is of the view that this murder will purge her.Example #6: Romeo and Juliet , Act I, Scene II (By William Shakespeare)O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?Beautiful tyrant! fiond angelical!Dove-feather'd raven! wolvish-ravening lamb!Despised substance of divinest show!Just opposite to what thou justly seem'st;A damned saint, an honourable villain!O, nature! what hadst thou to do in hellWhen thou didst bower the spirit of a fiendThis extract makes use of some good oxymora, such as "damned saint," and "honorable villain," etc.Function of OxymoronOxymoron produces a dramatic effect in both prose and poetry. For instance, when we read or hear the famous oxymoron, "sweet sorrow," crafted by Shakespeare, it appeals to us instantly. It provokes our thoughts, and makes us ponder the meaning of contradicting ideas. This apparently confusing phrase expresses the complex nature of love, that can never be expressed through simple words.In everyday conversation, however, people do not use oxymoron to make deep statements like the one above. Instead, they do it to show wit. The use of oxymoron adds flavor to their speech.

Pacing

Pacing is a stylistic device, which shows how fast a story unfolds. It is because when readers feel frustration in the length of the story, the writers use different techniques to control the pace of the story. If he writes a short story, he does not have to tell his tale through many pages, therefore, he cuts away extra words. However, when it is a long story or a novel, the pace is controlled through mix up, which means to use short sentences and active verbs in intense action scenes, and use descriptions with details for slower-paced scenes. Writers use this pace by choosing the exact words. In simple words, pacing is moving a story forward with a certain speed.Elements of PacingLet us see a few important pacing elements:Action - An action scene dramatizes the significant events of the story and shows what happens in a story.Cliffhanger - When the end of a chapter or scene is left hanging, naturally the pace picks up, because readers would turn the pages to see what happens next.Dialogue - A rapid fire dialogue with lesser or irrelevant information is captivating, swift and invigorates scenes.Word Choice - The language itself is a means of pacing, like using concrete words, active voice, and sensory information.Examples of Pacing in Literature Example #1: Da Vinci Code (by Dan Brown)The most exciting stories use sequences that move forward at different paces, which keep the audience engaged. In his novel, The Da Vinci Code, Dan Brown has accomplished this task by juxtaposing various chapters, featuring dialogues, which convey information about relics, and characters with very fast-paced action sequences. Though the book moves quickly, the chapters move with a leisurely-paced sequence that helps keep the tension in the story high. This all contributes to a well-paced story, without letting the readers feel bored.Example #2: The Most Dangerous Game (by Richard Connell)In his short story, The Most Dangerous Game, Richard Connell creates exciting and tense feelings of anticipation and uncertainty throughout the story. Suspense is the key that makes the story powerful and keeps it fast paced, but the story does not feel rushed. We also do not find a good stopping point anywhere. In fact, every event of the plot is marked by a great moment of suspense. For instance, when Whitney starts the narrative by saying, "Off there to the right - somewhere - is a large island. It's rather a mystery." This gives a hint to the readers that the island is very important, and thereafter the story jumps into resolving the mystery.Example #3: Pride and Prejudice (by Jane Austen) There are various subplots in Jane Austen's novel, Pride and Prejudice, which keep the story of the novel moving. These subplots include the romance between Bingley and Jane, the marriage of Collins and Charlotte, the seduction leading to marriage between Lydia and Wickham, and a major conflict between Wickham and Darcy. Jane Austen also has used letters as a literary device to change the pace of her story through emotional communication.Example #4: The Necklace (by Guy de Maupassant)The most incredible thing about writing is his control over pacing and timing. To capture the superior mentality of Mme. Loisel in his famous story The Necklace, he vividly immerses readers into the reality. Maupassant uses his word choice and pacing to control readers' experience. Then there is a ball invitation, and a necklace ball sequence, where she loses her necklace - a sequence of looking for it, not finding it, and finally buying a brand new one. Then there are ten years of hard living and poverty, which M. Loisel and Mme must confront. In fact, there is a lot to cover in just five or six pages; despite that, the story does not feel rushed or slow.Function of PacingPacing is not only the speed at which a story moves, but also a technique, which determines the appeal of the story for the audience. It is because a slow-paced work appeals to older audiences, while a fast-paced work appeals to younger audiences. It is not only fiction writers who use this technique, but poets also employ punctuation and formatting to set pace of their poems. Even they use meter and rhyme to affect the pace. Besides, nonfiction writers use it to keep their work fast-paced to avoid dullness, and slow-paced to give more attention to details.

Parable

Parable is a figure of speech, which presents a short story, typically with a moral lesson at the end. You often have heard stories from your elders, such as The Boy Who Cried Wolf, and All is Vanity. These are parables, because they teach you a certain moral lesson. Parable is, in fact, a Greek word, parable, which means "comparison." It is like a succinct narrative, or a universal truth that uses symbolism, simile, and metaphor, to demonstrate the moral lesson intended to be taught. Like analogy, we find the use of parables in verse and prose, specifically in religious texts, such as the Upanishad or the Bible. Examples of Parable in LiteratureExample #1: The Cow (From The Holy Quran)The holy Quran narrates a parable in second chapter, Al Baqra 2: 259, in which a man happened to pass through hamlet - a place where people died centuries ago. The man doubted the power of God, and thought of how He would resurrect them on Doomsday. Subsequently, God caused him to die, resurrected him after a hundred years, and asked him how long he slept, to which he replied only a day. However, his food was still fresh, which he brought with him.This shows that God has control over all things and time. The traveler's donkey, on the other hand, was dead and had become a skeleton. Then, God joined the bones, muscles, flesh, and blood of the donkey again before the man, and brought it back to life. Hence, this parable taught us a moral lesson in three ways:God can change time.God has power over life, death, resurrection, and no other can have this power.Humans have no power, and they should put their faith only in God.Example #2: The Good Samaritan (From The Holy Bible)Jesus told a very popular parable of a Good Samaritan in the holy Bible. The Gospel of Luke (10:29-37) describes that there was a traveler (who may have been a Jew), whom some people had robbed and beaten alongside the road, then left him. A Levite and a priest passed through that way, but both ignored the man.Eventually, a Samaritan came by and helped the injured and miserable man, without thinking about his race or religious belief (generally, Samaritans despised Jews). Later, the traveler revealed himself to be the Christ. The moral of this parable is to help all those who are in need, without having prejudice for anyone due to perceived differences.Example #3: The Emperor's New Clothes (By Hans Christian Anderson) Hans Christian Anderson wrote a short parable, "The Emperor's New Clothes. The author tells about the life of a silly and vain emperor, whom two cheaters approached, pretending to be artists. They suggested that he wear their clothes, which they said would make him invisible in front of incompetent and stupid people. The emperor agreed, and paid them to make such clothes, as he enjoyed wearing fancy dress.In fact, they did not make any fancy suit; however, people started admiring them, so that they might not be considered useless and stupid. Therefore, the emperor took off his clothes and wore the invisible dress, which actually left him prancing around town naked. Nobody told him the truth except a young boy who screamed to see him. Thus, the moral of this parable is that people should have their own opinions, and they need not depend upon others' opinions.Example #4: The Prodigal Son (From The Holy Bible, Book of Luke)In the book of Luke (15:11-32), Jesus teaches about the love of God for humanity. In this parable, a rich father divides his estate - while he was still living - between his two sons. His younger son does not want to wait until his father's death for his inheritance, and asks for it immediately. That son wastes the whole of his newfound wealth, and becomes miserable. Realizing he will need his father's help to survive, he returns home to beg to become one of his father's hired servants. Rather than being angry, the father welcomes his wayward son, celebrating his return.The elder son, who had remained with his father the entire time, not wasting his inheritance, was perplexed by this, and refused to take part in the celebration. He said to his father:"Lo, these many years do I serve thee, neither transgressed I at any time thy commandment: and yet thou never gavest me a kid, that I might make merry with my friends..."The father replies to the eldest son:"Son, thou art ever with me, and all that I have is thine.It was meet that we should make merry, and be glad: for this thy brother was dead, and is alive again; and was lost, and is found."When father dies, he leaves his remaining inheritance for the elder son. The tale conveys the symbolic message that God is like a fatherly figure, who loves humanity despite its rebellious nature, and those who follow His path, are welcomed by Him, even if they have strayed.Function of Parable Parable is a great teaching tool, because it often uses symbolic imagery and metaphors that the audience can easily recognize. Thus, the storyteller can convey complicated moral truths in such a way that they become relatable and understandable to one's own life. Sometimes listeners have to discern the lesson that a parable conveys, and the audience also participates in arriving at the conclusion in this way. Generally, parables help readers understand philosophical issues or moral lessons in relatable terms, while tellers could lead them in a better way to apply such principles in their daily lives.

Portmanteau

Portmanteau is a literary device in which two or more words are joined together to coin a new word, which refers to a singe concept. The coinage of portmanteau involves the linking and blending of two or more words, and the new word formed in the process shares the same meanings as the original words. It is different from a compound word, which could have a completely different meaning from the words that it was coined from.Portmanteau, on the other hand, shares the same semantic features. For example, the word "brunch" is formed by splicing two words "breakfast" and "lunch." The spliced parts "br-" and "-unch" are blended to form a portmanteau word, "brunch," which is the meal taken between breakfast and lunch. Interestingly, the word portmanteau is formed by blending two French words, porter ("to carry") and Manteau ("cloak").Common Portmanteau ExamplesIn modern times, portmanteau words have entered the English language regularly. We see their widespread coinage in different fields of life. No doubt, they are both useful and interesting. Below is a list of examples of portmanteau words in modern language.education + entertainment = edutainmentfan + magazine = fanzinecyberspace + magazine = cyberzineOxford + Cambridge = Oxbridgetelephone + marathon = telethonmedical + care = Medicareparachute + troops = paratroopsmotor + hotel = motelcamera + recorder = camcorderweb + log = blogiPod + broadcasting = podcastingExamples of Portmanteau in Art and Entertainment The world of art and entertainment is replete with portmanteau examples, such as:britcom, from British and comedy (see also: sitcom)californication, from California and fornicationcassingle, from cassette and singlecosplay, from costume and playdramedy, from drama and comedyreligulous, from religion and ridiculoussacrilicious, from sacrilege and delicious (Homer Simpson)scanlation, from scan and translationsitcom, from situational and comedyslurve, form slider and curve (baseball pitches)spife, spoon and knifespork, spoon and forkstreetball, from street and basketballExamples of Portmanteau in LiteratureExample #1: Through the Looking Glass, and What Alice Found There (Lewis Carroll)In literature, Lewis Carroll introduces the term portmanteau in his novel "Through the Looking Glass, and What Alice Found There." In chapter 6, Humpty Dumpty explains the meaning of "slithy" and "mimsy," in the nonsense poem Jabberwocky. He says that "slithy" is a combination of "slimy" and "lithe," and "mimsy" is a combination of "flimsy," and "miserable." He tells Alice:"You see it's like a portmanteau—there are two meanings packed up into one word."Example #2: Finnegans Wake (By James Joyce)James Joyce extensively uses portmanteau words in his novel Finnegans Wake. For instance:Ethiquetical is formed from ethicsand etiquette.Blinkhards is coined from the Dutch "blinken" ("to shine") and the English to blink."Stop his laysense. Ink him!" Laysense comes from the words "layman" and "sense."Sinduced is from "sin" and "seduced."Comeday is from "someday" and "comedy."Fadograph is formed from "fading" and "photograph."Example #3: Bleak House (By Charles Dickens) Charles Dickens is famous for giving his characters portmanteau names. Such names correspond with the each character's disposition as well. For instance, there is a character named Mr. Tulkinghorn, a stout lawyer, in Bleakhouse. Tulking is a modification of bulking and horn suggests an injurious nature.Similarly, Mr. Boythorn in Bleakhouse is a compounding of boyhood, referring to his goodness of heart; and thorn, pointing to his loud and harsh nature. Moreover, Mr. Murdstone seems to come from the words "murderer" and "stone," and refers to coldness. In The Mystery of Edwin Drood, the name Crisparkle is a blending of the words "Christian," which manifests his goodness, and "sparkle," which reflects his boy-like temperament.Function of PortmanteauOne of the many factors that distinguish the English language from other languages of the world is the scope it offers for creativity, through literary devices such as portmanteau. The existence of portmanteau words rightly testifies to this creative factor in the English language, where entirely new words with a unique meaning of their own are formed by blending parts of two or more totally different words. Writers are interested in such coinages because they allow them to add creativity to their works, which consequently adds the element of interest in their literary texts. Moreover, it attracts readers' attention, as they enjoy and appreciates this subtle demonstration of word play.

Rhetoric

Rhetoric is a technique of using language effectively and persuasively in spoken or written form. It is an art of discourse, which studies and employs various methods to convince, influence, or please an audience. For instance, a person gets on your nerves, you start feeling irritated, and you say, "Why don't you leave me alone?" By posing such a question, you are not actually asking for a reason. Instead, you simply want him to stop irritating you. Thus, you direct language in a particular way for effective communication, making use of rhetoric. A situation where you make use of rhetoric is called a "rhetorical situation."Difference Between Rhetorical Device and Figures of SpeechRhetorical figures or devices are employed to achieve particular emphasis and effect. Rhetorical devices, however, are different from "figures of speech". Wherever and whenever a figure of speech is used in written texts and speech, it alters meanings of words. For example, the metaphor used in the expression "He is a tiger," is a complete altered form of a simple idea "He is brave." Try to compare this example to the use of a rhetorical device in the example below:"I am never ever going to rob anyone for you and never, never ever give in to your sinful wish."The repetition in the above example does lay emphasis on the statement but does not alter the sense of it.Common Rhetoric Examples Below are a few examples on how rhetoric is employed by using various literary devices:How did this idiot get elected? - A rhetorical question to convince others that the "idiot" does not deserve to be elected.Here comes the Helen of our school. - An allusion to "Helen of Troy," to emphasize the beauty of a girl.I would die if you asked me to sing in front of my parents. - A hyperbole to persuade others not to use force to make you do something you don't want to do.All blonds are dumb. - Using a stereotype to develop a general opinion about a group.Nevertheless, the difference between rhetorical devices and figures of speech is so minute that both share many features. A figure of speech becomes a device in rhetoric when it is aimed at persuading the readers or listeners.Examples of Rhetoric in LiteratureLet us try to analyze the use of rhetoric in some literary works:Example #1: Paradise Lost (By John Milton)John Milton's Paradise Lost has several examples of rhetoric. To quote an example from Book V:"...advise him of his happy state—Happiness in his power left free to will,Left to his own free will, his will though freeYet mutable."The repetition of the phrase "free will" emphasizes the theme of human creation, which is making free choices, but the phrase "yet mutable" creates ambiguity that, despite being free, Adam had to be careful, as a wrong act could make him lose his freedom.Example #2: Death, be not Proud (By John Donne)John Donne addresses death in his Death, be not Proud (Holy Sonnet 10) by saying:"Thou 'art slave to fate, chance, kings, and desperate men,And dost with poison, war, and sickness dwell,And poppy 'or charms can make us sleep as wellAnd better than thy stroke; why swell'st thou then?"The rhetorical question "why swell'st thou then?" serves to play down the horrific nature of death. He devalues death by calling it a "slave," and that it keeps the despicable company of "poison, war, sickness" and seeks their support.Example #3: Crossing Brooklyn Ferry (By Walt Whitman) We see Walt Whitman in his poem Crossing Brooklyn Ferry use anaphora to create a rhetorical effect:"Flood-tide below me! I watch you, face to face;Clouds of the west! sun there half an hour high! I see you also face to face."Anaphora is a device where the same word or phrase is repeated at regular intervals to achieve a rhetorical effect.Function of RhetoricRhetoric, as explained above, is a tool for writers and orators which empowers them to convince their readers and listeners about their point of view. Often, we find rhetoric examples in religious sermons and political speeches. They aim to make comparisons, to evoke tender emotions, to censure rivals, and all this is done to persuade listeners.Advertisers give their ads a touch of rhetoric to boost their sales by convincing people that their product is better than other products in the market. For instance, in an advertisement, a girl - after shampooing her hair with a particular product - says, "I can't stop touching my hair." This is an attempt to entice consumers, through visual rhetoric, to buy this product, in order to have soft and shiny hair like her.

Rhetorical Devices

Rhetorical devices are literary elements used to convince or persuade audiences using logos, pathos, and ethos. Their appropriate use makes the text rich, lifelike and enjoyable in prose and poetry. When carefully inserted, they transform an ordinary piece of writing into a memorable, evocative and pleasant literary work. It is due to these devices the readers feel aligned to the character or the writer. Also, the audiences understand the uniqueness and depth of the text. However, rhetorical devices appeal to one's sensibilities in four ways: logos, pathos, ethos, and kairos. Types of Rhetorical DevicesThere are many types of rhetorical devices such as:Alliteration: Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds in the first letter of the word in the same line.Antithesis: An antithesis is a figure of speech that refers to the juxtaposition of opposing or contrasting ideas.Anaphora: It refers to the repetition of a word or expression in the first part of some verses.Refrain: The lines that are repeated at some distance in the poems are called refrain.Metaphor: It is a figure of speech in which an implied comparison is made between the objects different in nature.Parallelism: Parallelism is the use of components in a sentence that is grammatically the same; or similar in their construction, sound, meaning, or meter.Examples from Literature Example #1 God's Grandeur by Gerard Manley Hopkins"The world is charged with the grandeur of God.It will flame out, like shining from shook foil;It gathers to a greatness, like the ooze of oilCrushed. Why do men then now not reck his rod?Generations have trod, have trod, have trod;And all is seared with trade; bleared, smeared with toil;And wears man's smudge and shares man's smell: the soilIs bare now, nor can foot feel, being shod."God's Grandeur is a famous poem of the 19th century which illustrates two things: the poet's excitement on the everlasting presence of God and his resentment on the ruination caused by mankind. The first part of the poem deals with Hopkins's feelings about God's presence and his power in the world. While, in the second part, he shows resentment on the approach of a modern man whose excessive alteration in nature has brought destruction in the world. Hopkins has used many rhetorical devices to grab the reader's attention.Parallelism is used in the first stanza where, "And all is seared with trade" is paralleling with "bleared, smeared with toil." Anaphora is used in the fifth line where Hopkins has repeated the words "have trod" to emphasize the ruination caused by men on the earth. He has also used metaphor, assonance consonance and alliteration to create a special effect in the poem.Example #2A Psalm of Life by Henry Wadsworth LongfellowTell me not, in mournful numbers,Life is but an empty dream!For the soul is dead that slumbers,And things are not what they seem.Life is real! Life is earnest!And the grave is not its goal;Dust thou art, to dust returnest,Was not spoken of the soul.Not enjoyment, and not sorrow,Is our destined end or way;But to act, that each to-morrowFind us farther than to-day.Art is long, and Time is fleeting,And our hearts, though stout and brave,Still, like muffled drums, are beatingFuneral marches to the grave.The poem deals with the subject of life and the possibilities it offers to mankind. It also evokes and instructs them to live life at its maximum. He presents a highly optimistic view of life and argues that it is full of chances and opportunities. Therefore, we should try to seek them. Wadsworth has used many rhetorical devices in this poem to present his idea convincingly. For example, allusion is used in the opening line of the poem such as, "Tell me not, in mournful numbers." Here, the numbers refer to the chapters and sections of the Bible. Parallelism device is used in the second stanza where "Life is real" is paralleling "Life is earnest." He has also used assonance, consonance, alliteration, and anaphora in the poem to engage the readers.Example #3The Second Coming by William Butler Yeats"Surely some revelation is at handSurely the Second Coming is at hand.The Second Coming! Hardly are those words outWhen a vast image out of Spiritus MundiTroubles my sight: somewhere in sands of the desertA shape with lion body and the head of a man,A gaze blank and pitiless as the sun,Is moving its slow thighs, while all about itReel shadows of the indignant desert birds.The darkness drops again; but now I knowThat twenty centuries of stony sleepWere vexed to nightmare by a rocking cradle,And what rough beast, its hour come round at last,Slouches towards Bethlehem to be born?"The Second Coming revolves around the political, cultural and spiritual issues. The poet predicts that some kind of "Second Coming" is arriving and that the chaos in the world manifests that the arrival is not so far. To him, the Second Coming would lead humanity to more catastrophes. Yeats has implied plenty of rhetorical devices in the poem to express his fears. For example, he has used hyperbole in the tenth line where it is stated as, "Surely the second coming is at hand," as if he is very much sure about the arrival of the beast. There are many metaphors used in this poem such as, "the falcon" and "the falconer" that stand for the world and the controlling force that directs the humanity and "the rough beast" is also the metaphor of second coming.Functions of Rhetorical DevicesRhetorical devices are used as tools to evoke responses on the reader's part. It provides them an opportunity to understand the emotions, feelings, and ideas of the poet or the writer at a deeper level. Also, using rhetorical devices help writers to sketch a vivid experience for the audience. They also persuade the audiences about the writers' perspectives. They make the texts to be loaded with messages to be conveyed to the r. Use of different rhetorical devices make the objectives of the writers clear to the readers.

Persuasive Essay

The term "persuasive" is an adjective derived from verb "persuade," which means "to convince somebody." A persuasive essay is full of all the convincing techniques a writer can employ. It presents a situation, and takes a stand - either in its favor, or against it - to prove to readers whether it is beneficial or harmful for them. Why Persuasion?The question arises why persuasion if the people are already aware of everything. Its answer is that each person's ability of seeing and understanding things depend on his vision. He believes only what he sees or is told about. If another side of the coin is shown, the people do not believe so easily. That is why they are presented with arguments supported with evidences, statistics and facts. Persuasion is done for these reasons:A Better World: To ask the people that if they accept your argument, it will be good for them to take action and make the world a better place.A Worse World: It means that if readers do not do what they are asked to do, the world will become a worse place.Call to Action: It means to persuade or tempt readers to do what the writer wants them to do.Difference Between a Persuasive Essay and an Argumentative Essay A persuasive essay is intended to persuade readers to do certain things, or not to do certain things. It is the sole aim of the writer to coax or tempt readers, and force them to do certain things or take actions. However, an argumentative essay intends to make readers see both sides of the coin. It is up to them to select any of the two. In other words, an argumentative essay presents both arguments; both for and against a thing, and leaves the readers to decide. On the other hand, a persuasive essay intends to make readers do certain things. Therefore, it presents arguments only about one aspect of the issue.Examples of Persuasive Essay in LiteratureExample #1: Our Unhealthy Obsession and Sickness (by Frank Furedi)"Governments today do two things that I object to in particular. First they encourage introspection, telling us that unless men examine their testicles, unless we keep a check on our cholesterol level, then we are not being responsible citizens. You are letting down yourself, your wife, your kids, everybody. We are encouraged continually to worry about our health. As a consequence, public health initiatives have become, as far as I can tell, a threat to public health. Secondly, governments promote the value of health seeking. We are meant always to be seeking health for this or that condition. The primary effect of this, I believe, is to make us all feel more ill."This is an excerpt from a persuasive essay of Frank Furedi. It encourages people to think about how the government is helping public health. Both the arguments of persuasion start with "First" in the first line and with "Secondly" in the second last line.Example #2: We Are Training Our Kids to Kill (by Dave Grossman)"Our society needs to be informed about these crimes, but when the images of the young killers are broadcast on television, they become role models. The average preschooler in America watches 27 hours of television a week. The average child gets more one-on-one communication from TV than from all her parents and teachers combined. The ultimate achievement for our children is to get their picture on TV. The solution is simple, and it comes straight out of the sociology literature: The media have every right and responsibility to tell the story, but they must be persuaded not to glorify the killers by presenting their images on TV."This is an excerpt from Grossman's essay. He is clearly convincing the public about the violent television programs and their impacts on the kids. See how strong his arguments are in favor of his topic.Example #3: The Real Skinny (by Belinda Luscombe) "And what do we the people say? Do we rise up and say, 'I categorically refuse to buy any article of clothing unless the person promoting it weighs more than she did when she wore knee socks?' Or at least, 'Where do I send the check for the chicken nuggets?' Actually, not so much. Mostly, our responses range from 'I wonder if that would look good on me?' to 'I don't know who that skinny-ass cow is, but I hate her already.'Just check the strength of the argument of Belinda Luscombe about purchasing things. The beauty of her writing is that she has made her readers think by asking rhetorical questions and answering them.Function of a Persuasive EssayThe major function of a persuasive essay is to convince readers that, if they take a certain action, the world will be a better place for them. It could be otherwise or it could be a call to an action. The arguments given are either in the favor of the topic or against it. It cannot combine both at once. That is why readers feel it easy to be convinced.

Deus Ex Machina

The term deus ex machina refers to the circumstance where an implausible concept or a divine character is introduced into a storyline, for the purpose of resolving its conflict and procuring an interesting outcome. The use of deus ex machina is discouraged, for the reason that the presence of it within a plot is viewed as a sign of an ill-structured plot. The explanation that the critics provide for this view is that the writer's sudden resort to random, insupportable, and unbelievable twists for the purpose of procuring an ending, highlights the inherent deficiencies of the plot. Hence, deus ex machina is a rather debatable, and often criticized, form of literary device.The term is Latin for "god out of the machine," and has its origins in ancient Greek theatre. It denotes scenes in which a crane (machine) was used to lower actors or statues playing a god or gods (deus) onto the stage to set things right, usually near the end of the play.Requirements of Deus Ex MachinaDeus ex machinas are solutions. They are not to be seen as unexpected twists and turns in the storyline that end up making things worse, and not as something that contributes towards changing the understanding of the story. Further, it must be shown that the problem solved by a deus ex machina is one that is unsolvable or otherwise hopeless.It is also that they are sudden or unexpected. This means that the inherent capacity of deus ex machina to solve the mystery is not apparent until the time the device is actually employed to procure a viable ending for the plot. However, if some other type of intervention - like common sense - could have been employed to procure the same result, then no matter how sudden the solution is, it would not be termed as deus ex machina.Euripides was one of the most prominent users of deus ex machina. Some scholars believe that he was the first writer to employ the device in his tragedies. His work is often met with criticism for the way he structured his plots, and for his underlying ideas.Deus Ex Machina Examples Example #1: Medea (By Euripides)When Medea is shown in the chariot of the sun god Helios, the god himself isn't present. From her vantage point in the chariot, she watches the grieving Jason. The argument goes about that this specific scene is an illustration of the employment of the deus ex machina device within the plot of the tragedy.Example #2: Hippolytus (By Euripides)There are three deities present in this play: the jealous Aphrodite, Artemis the object of Hippolytus' affection, and vengeful Poseidon. However, it is only Artemis who appears. She explains to Theseus that Hippolytus was innocent all along, and that it was Aphrodite who had sinned and caused all the grief. Artemis also promises to destroy any man Aphrodite ever loves.Example #3: Andromache (By Euripides) In the end of the play, Thetis the sea goddess appears to Peleus. She comes to take Peleus back with her to her ocean home. The play ends with Peleus going with Thetis his wife, into the ocean.Example #4: Helen (By Euripides)Theoclymenos is furious when Helen and Menelaus trick him and run away together. In consequence, he tries to murder his sister for not telling him that Menelaus was not dead. The demi-gods Castor and Polydeuces - Helen's brothers, and sons of Zeus and Leda - appear astonishingly to interrupt.Example #5: Orestes (By Euripides)Apollo appears on stage to bring things in order. Apollo clears the situation by informing the characters (and the audience) that Helen had been put amongst the stars, and therefore Menelaus should return to Sparta. He also orders Orestes to travel to Athens to stand trial in their court, and ensures him of his subsequent acquittal. Further, Apollo states that Orestes will marry Hermione, and that Pylades and Electra will also marry.Function of Deus Ex MachinaThe tool of deus ex machina remains a popular one even today, being employed in modern films, novels, and short stories. However the scope of the term has been effectively widened to present it as a multifaceted tool.It can be employed for the purposes of moving a story forward, or when the writer has "painted himself into a corner" and finds no other escape. He uses this to surprise the audience, to bring a happy ending to the tale, or as a comedic device.

Epic

The word epic is derived from the Ancient Greek adjective, "epikos", which means a poetic story. In literature, an epic is a long narrative poem, which is usually related to heroic deeds of a person of an unusual courage and unparalleled bravery. In order to depict this bravery and courage, the epic uses grandiose style. The hero is usually the representative of the values of a certain culture, race, nation or a religious group on whose victor of failure the destiny of the whole nation or group depends. Therefore, certain supernatural forces, deus ex machina, help the hero, who comes out victor at the end. An epic usually starts with an invocation to muse, but then picks up the threads of the story from the middle and moves on to the end.Difference Between an Epic and a BalladA ballad and an epic both are poems, which narrate stories. However, a ballad is shorter in length than an epic, while it is composed to be sung on some occasions, and not narrated. They are also known as folk ballads as well as popular ballads. Most of the ballads have unknown origin and source and usually pass on orally from generations to generations. On the other hand, an epic poem tells a story, but about the heroic ideals of a specific society. The actual difference between the two is the length and the fact that one is usually meant to be sung, while the other is to be narrated. Both differ in style where a ballad is composed in a simple language, while an epic demonstrates mastery in style such as Paradise Lost.Examples of Epic from Literature The Epic of Gilgamesh (~2000 BCE)Perhaps, the Epic of Gilgamesh is the first example of an epic. It tells the story of the life of an Assyrian king, Gilgamesh. Like all other epics, the narrative of this epic revolves around the themes related to gods, human beings, mortality, legacy and seduction. Like other epics, it is also composed in a grand style. Gilgamesh is a young arrogant king due to his being half-god and half-human. His strength and masculine beauty becomes a constant source of trouble for others. Therefore, gods grow sick of Gilgamesh's arrogant and troublesome attitude and decide to teach him a lesson. He is made to fight his antagonist, Enkidu, and then go on a long journey to bring the plant of life — a journey on which he learns the lessons of life. Although the epic is written nearly 4,000 years ago, critics are unanimous that it is a human work.The Iliad (800 BCE)Iliad is another example of an epic. It was written by the popular Greek poet, Homer. It relates the story of the Trojan wars, involving themes of courage, boldness, love for one's country and nostalgia of family. However, it describes many legends related to the siege of Troy, the events took place before the siege, the gathering of the warriors prior to the siege and the causes of the war. Later, the epic foretold the looming death of Achilles and the destruction of Troy. The style of narration is grand, and suits an epic poem — the reason that it is still one the most celebrated work of antiquity.Paradise Lost (1667) Written on the same traditions but on a different subject, Paradise Lost, is an English epic by yet another blind poet of English origin, John Milton. It also is known colloquially as the Protestant Epic. In this epic, Milton argues Satan's fall from the heaven as well as Adam and Eve's fall from the Garden of Eden. Despite his blindness, Milton did not stop from explaining "the ways of God to men." He has depicted Satan as a highly complex character, who is at war with God. Despite his different subject, Milton has used several epic devices introduced by Homer such as invocation to the muse, extended similes and grand style.Function of EpicAs the epic poem is the earliest form of poetry, it is the earliest form of entertainment as well. Epics were written to commemorate the struggles and adventures of kings and warriors. The main function of epic poetry was to elevate the status of the hero among the audiences to inspire them to be ready to perform heroic actions. Epic obtained most of its themes from the exploits performed by legendary characters and their illustrious ancestors. That is why these exploits became examples for others to follow, and still lived in books. It is through epics, models of ideal heroic behavior were supplied to the common people. Moreover, epics also were collections of historical events not recorded in common history books — the reason that they are read today to be enjoyed and be informed regarding the past.

Fable

The word fable is derived from the Latin word fibula, which means "a story," and a derivative of the word fari, which means "to speak." Fable is a literary device that can be defined as a concise and brief story intended to provide a moral lesson at the end. In literature, it is described as a didactic lesson given through some sort of animal story. In prose and verse, a fable is described through plants, animals, forces, of nature, and inanimate objects by giving them human attributes wherein they demonstrate a moral lesson at the end.Features of a FableA fable is intended to provide a moral story.Fables often use animals as the main characters. They are presented with anthropomorphic characteristics, such as the ability to speak and to reason.Fables personify the animal characters.Examples of Fable in Literature Example #1: The Fox and the Crow (By Aesop's Fables)"A crow was sitting on a branch of a tree with a piece of cheese in her beak when a fox observed her and set his wits to work to discover some way of getting the cheese. Coming and standing under the tree he looked up and said, 'What a noble bird I see above me! Her beauty is without equal...' Down came the cheese, of course, and the Fox, snatching it up, said, 'You have a voice, madam, I see: what you want is wits.'"Aesop is probably the most notable author of famous examples of fable. Aesopian fables put emphasis on the social communications of human beings, and hence the morals he draws deal with realities of life. In this excerpt, Aesop gives a moral lesson that flatterers must not be trusted.Example #2: Animal Farm (By George Orwell)"Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable, laborious, and short. We are born, we are given just so much food as will keep the breath in our bodies ... and the very instant that our usefulness has come to an end ... No animal in England knows the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old. No animal in England is free. The life of an animal is misery and slavery ..."Here, old Major is speaking to other animals. It is presented as the story of the development and emergence of Soviet communism, through an animal fable. He advises the animals to struggle against the humans, telling them that rebellion is the only feasible way out of their miserable situation.Example #3: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By S.T. Coleridge) First Voice"But tell me, tell me! speak again,Thy soft response renewing —What makes that ship drive on so fast?What is the ocean doing?"Second Voice"Still as a slave before his lord,The ocean hath no blast...Up to the moon is cast —...See! see! (I cried) she tacks no more..."Without a breeze, without a tide,She steadies with upright keel!"The voices in this poem explain the moving ship without waves and wind. There is a supernatural force at work. This literary piece is one of the well-written fable examples that teach about penance, redemption, and sin. The killing of a bird symbolizes the original sin.Example #4: Gulliver's Travels (By Jonathan Swift)"I attempted to rise, but was not able to stir: for, as I happened to lie on my back, I found my arms and legs were strongly fastened on each side to the ground; and my hair, which was long and thick, tied down in the same manner ... In a little time I felt something alive moving on my left leg, which advancing gently forward over my breast, came almost up to my chin..."Gulliver's Travels is a mixture of political allegory, moral fable, mock utopia, and social anatomy. In this excerpt, Captain Gulliver reaches an unknown place among strange creatures who speak a strange language. This is a type of modern fable intended to satirize political vices.Function of FableThe purpose of writing fables is to convey a moral lesson and message. Fables also give readers a chance to laugh at the follies of human beings, and they can be employed for the objective of satire and criticism. They are very helpful in teaching children good lessons based on examples. However, in literature, fables are used for didactic purposes at a much broader level.

Alliteration

Alliteration is derived from Latin's "Latira". It means "letters of alphabet". It is a stylistic device in which a number of words, having the same first consonant sound, occur close together in a series.Consider the following examples:But a better butter makes a batter better.A big bully beats a baby boy.Both sentences are alliterative because the same first letter of words (B) occurs close together and produces alliteration in the sentence. An important point to remember here is that alliteration does not depend on letters but on sounds. So the phrase not knotty is alliterative, but cigarette chase is not.Common Examples of AlliterationIn our daily life, we notice alliteration in the names of different companies. It makes the name of a company catchy and easy to memorize. Here are several common alliteration examples.Dunkin' DonutsPayPalBest BuyCoca-ColaLife LockPark PlaceAmerican ApparelAmerican AirlinesChuckee Cheese'sBed Bath & BeyondKrispy KremeThe Scotch and SirloinWe also find alliterations in names of people, making such names prominent and easy to be remembered. For instance, both fictional characters and real people may stand out prominently in your mind due to the alliterative effects of their names. Examples are:Ronald ReaganSammy SosaJesse JacksonMichael MooreWilliam WordsworthMickey MousePorky PigLois LaneMarilyn MonroeFred FlintstoneDonald DuckSpongebob SquarepantsSeattle SeahawksAlliteration Examples in Literature Example #1From Samuel Taylor Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner""The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,The furrow followed free;We were the first that ever burstInto that silent sea."In the above lines we see alliteration ("b", "f" and "s") in the phrases "breeze blew", "foam flew", "furrow followed", and "silent sea".Example #2From James Joyce's "The Dead""His soul swooned slowly as he heard the snow falling faintly through the universe and faintly falling, like the descent of their last end, upon all the living and the dead."We notice several instances of alliteration in the above mentioned prose work of James Joyce. Alliterations are with "s" and "f" in the phrases "swooned slowly" and "falling faintly".Example #3 From Maya Angelou's "I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings""Up the aisle, the moans and screams merged with the sickening smell of woolen black clothes worn in summer weather and green leaves wilting over yellow flowers."Maya gives us a striking example of alliteration in the above extract with the letters "s" and "w". We notice that alliterative words are interrupted by other non-alliterative words among them but the effect of alliteration remains the same. We immediately notice alliteration in the words "screams", "sickening smell", "summer", "weather" and "wilting".Example #4From William Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" (prologue to Act 1)"From forth the fatal loins of these two foes;A pair of star-cross'd lovers take their life."This is an example of alliteration with the "f" and "l." in words "forth, fatal, foes" and "loins, lovers, and life".Example #5Percy Bysshe Shelley's (English Romantic poet) "The Witch of Atlas" is a famous poem that is full of examples of alliterations. Just a few of them are "wings of winds" (line 175), "sick soul to happy sleep" (line 178), "cells of crystal silence" (line 156), "Wisdom's wizard. . . wind. . . will" (lines 195-197), "drained and dried" ( line 227), "lines of light" (line 245), "green and glowing" (line 356), and crudded. . . cape of cloud" (lines 482-3).Function of AlliterationAlliteration has a very vital role in poetry and prose. It creates a musical effect in the text that enhances the pleasure of reading a literary piece. It makes reading and recitation of the poems attractive and appealing; thus, making them easier to learn by heart. Furthermore, it renders flow and beauty to a piece of writing.In the marketing industry, as what we have already discussed, alliteration makes the brand names interesting and easier to remember. This literary device is helpful in attracting customers and enhancing sales.

Allusion

Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural, literary or political significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it refers. It is just a passing comment and the writer expects the reader to possess enough knowledge to spot the allusion and grasp its importance in a text.For instance, you make a literary allusion the moment you say, "I do not approve of this quixotic idea," Quixotic means stupid and impractical derived from Cervantes's "Don Quixote", a story of a foolish knight and his misadventures.Allusion Examples in Everyday SpeechThe use allusions are not confined to literature alone. Their occurrence is fairly common in our daily speech. Look at some common allusion examples in everyday life:"Don't act like a Romeo in front of her." - "Romeo" is a reference to Shakespeare's Romeo, a passionate lover of Juliet, in "Romeo and Juliet".The rise in poverty will unlock the Pandora's box of crimes. - This is an allusion to one of Greek Mythology's origin myth, "Pandora's box"."This place is like a Garden of Eden." - This is a biblical allusion to the "garden of God" in the Book of Genesis."Hey! Guess who the new Newton of our school is?" - "Newton", means a genius student, alludes to a famous scientist Isaac Newton."Stop acting like my ex-husband please." - Apart from scholarly allusions we refer to common people and places in our speech.Examples of Allusion in Literature Let us analyze a few examples of the use of allusions in literature:Example #1Milton's "Paradise Lost" gives allusions a fair share. Look at the example from Book 6 below:"All night the dread less Angel unpursu'dThrough Heav'ns wide Champain held his way, till Morn,Wak't by the circling Hours, with rosie handUnbarr'd the gates of Light. There is a CaveWithin the Mount of God, fast by his Throne"In the above lines "dread less Angel" is a reference to "Abdiel", a fearless angel. "Circling Hours" alludes to a Greek Myth "The Horae", the daughters of "Zeus" and "Themis" namely "Thallo (Spring), Auxo (Summer) and Carpo (Fall). " With rosie hand" Milton refers to Homer's illustration of the "rosy fingered dawn" (Odyssey Book 2).Example #2Marlowe's "Doctor Faustus" is replete with instances of allusions. Read the example from Act III below:"Learnèd Faustus, to find the secrets of astronomyGraven in the book of Jove's high firmament,Did mount him up to scale Olympus' top,Where, sitting in a chariot burning bright,Drawn by the strength of yokèd dragons' necks,He views the clouds, the planets, and the stars."Jove's high firmament refers to the outer stretches of the universe. "Olympus' top" is an allusion to Greek Mythology where Mount Olympus is home of gods. Similarly, "a chariot burning bright" refers to a Greek Myth of "god Apollo" who is said to drive the sun in his chariot.Example #3 In Conrad's "Heart of Darkness", "the two knitting women" whom Marlow sees alludes to "Moirae" or Fates as visualized in Greek Mythology:"The two knitting women increase his anxiety by gazing at him and all the other sailors with knowing unconcern. Their eerie looks suggest that they know what will happen (the men dying), yet don't care"The thread they knit represents human life. The two women knitting black wool foreshadows Marlow's horrific journey in the "Dark Continent".Example #4We find a number of allusions in Keats's "Ode to the Grecian Urn". For example:"Sylvan historian, who canst thus expressA flowery tale more sweetly than our rhyme:What leaf-fringed legend haunts about thy shapeOf deities or mortals, or of both,In Tempe or the dales of Arcady?""Sylvan" is a goat-like-man deity of Greek mythology. "Tempe" alludes to the "Vale of Tempe" in Greece, a place (from Greek mythology) frequently visited by Apollo and other gods. Likewise, "the dales of Arcady" refers to the home of "Pan", the god of rustic music.Function of AllusionBy and large, the use of allusions enables writers or poets to simplify complex ideas and emotions. The readers comprehend the complex ideas by comparing the emotions of the writer or poet to the references given by them. Furthermore, the references to Greek Mythology give a dreamlike and magical touch to the works of art. Similarly, biblical allusions appeal to the readers with religious backgrounds.

Ambiguity

Ambiguity, or fallacy of ambiguity, is a word, phrase, or statement which contains more than one meaning. Ambiguous words or statements lead to vagueness and confusion, and shape the basis for instances of unintentional humor.For instance, it is ambiguous to say "I rode a black horse in red pajamas," because it may lead us to think the horse was wearing red pajamas. The sentence becomes clear when it is restructured as, "Wearing red pajamas, I rode a black horse."Similarly, same words with different meanings can cause ambiguity, such as in, "John took off his trousers by the bank." It is funny if we confuse one meaning of "bank," which is a building, to another meaning, which is "an edge of a river." Context usually resolves any ambiguity in such cases.Common Ambiguity ExamplesBelow are some common examples of ambiguity:A good life depends on a liver - Liver may be an organ or simply a living person.Foreigners are hunting dogs - It is unclear whether dogs were being hunted, or foreigners are being spoken of as dogs.Each of us saw her duck - It is not clear whether the word "duck" refers to an action of ducking, or a duck that is a bird.The passerby helped dog bite victim - Is the passerby helping a dog bite someone? Or is he helping a person who has been bitten by a dog? It's not clear.Examples of Ambiguity in Literature Although ambiguity is considered a flaw in writing, many writers use this technique to allow readers to understand their works in a variety of ways, giving them depth and complexity. Let us analyze some ambiguity examples in literature.Example #1: The Catcher in the Rye (By J. D. Salinger)Read the following excerpt from The Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger:"I ran all the way to the main gate, and then I waited a second till I got my breath. I have no wind, if you want to know the truth. I'm quite a heavy smoker, for one thing—that is, I used to be. They made me cut it out. Another thing, I grew six and a half inches last year. That's also how I practically got t.b. and came out here for all these goddam checkups and stuff. I'm pretty healthy though."The words "they" and "here" used by the speaker are ambiguous. But the readers are allowed to presume from the context that "they" might be the professionals helping out Holden, and "here" might be a rehabilitation center.Example #2: The Sick Rose (By William Blake)The Sick Rose, a short lyric written by William Blake, is full of ambiguities:"O Rose thou art sick.The invisible worm,That flies in the nightIn the howling storm:Has found out thy bedOf crimson joy;And his dark secret loveDoes thy life destroy"Many of the words in the above lines show ambiguity. We cannot say for sure what " bed of crimson joy" means; neither can we be exact about the interpretation of "dark secret love." The ambiguous nature of such phrases allows readers to explore for deeper meanings of the poem.Some of those who have analyzed this poem believe that "Has found out thy bed / Of crimson joy" refers to making love.Example #3: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) On a larger scale, ambiguity may develop in a character, or in an entire story. For instance, Hamlet is a morally ambiguous character.He kills to avenge his father's murderHe is good because he wants to protect his motherHe is bad because he is willing to kill whom he must to achieve this endThe ambiguity in Hamlet's character is seen when he is hurt by the death of Ophelia, which is his personal loss, but he does not appreciate the effect that his actions are going to have on others.Example #4: Ode to a Grecian Urn (By John Keats)We find ambiguity in the first line of Keats' Ode to a Grecian Urn:"Thou still unravish'd bride of quietness..."The use of the word "still" is ambiguous in nature. Here, it may mean "an unmoving object," or it may be interpreted as "yet unchanged."Function of AmbiguityAmbiguity in literature serves the purpose of lending a deeper meaning to a literary work. By introducing ambiguity in their works, writers give liberty to readers to use their imagination to explore meanings. This active participation of the readers involves them in the prose or poetry they read.

Haiku

A haiku poem has three lines, where the first and last lines have five moras, and the middle line has seven. The pattern in this Japanese genre is 5-7-5. The mora is another name for a sound unit, which is like a syllable, though there is a difference. As the moras cannot be translated into English, they are modified, and syllables are used instead. The lines of such poems rarely rhyme with each other. Haiku became popular as tanka poems in Japan during the 9th and 12th centuries. Initially, it was called "hokku" and Basho, Buson, and Issa were the first three masters of the haiku genre. Haiku poetry is also full of metaphors and personifications. However, this has often been argued against, since haikus are supposed to be written on objective experiences, rather than subjective ones. In English, several experiments were made in this genre as given below."Autumn moonlight—a worm digs silentlyinto the chestnut."(Autumn Moonlight, by Basho)Features of HaikuIt contains three lines.It has five moras (syllables) in the first line, seven in the second, and five in the last line.It contains 17 syllables in total.A Haiku poem does not rhyme.Haiku poems frequently have a kigo, or seasonal reference.Haiku poems are usually about nature or natural phenomena.The poem has two juxtaposed subjects that are divided into two contrasting parts.In English, this division between two parts can be shown by a colon or a dash.Examples of Haiku in Literature Example #1: Old Pond (By Basho)Old ponda frog jumpsthe sound of waterIn this example, we can clearly see two contrasting parts of the poem; one is about a frog that is jumping, and second is about the sound of water. The syllable pattern is also following a 5-7-5 format.Example #2: Book of Haikus (By Jack Kerouac)Snow in my shoe—AbandonedSparrow's nestThis haiku is presenting an image in the first part of "snow in my shoe." In addition, there are two contrasting ideas that mingle with one another as the second part is about nature. The pattern of syllables is 5-7-5. The poet has tried to present a little story in this haiku.Example #3: Dust of Summers (By Multiple Poets) Calling home—the color of mother's voicebefore her words(By Hilary Tann)Twilight...his voicedeep purple(By Ludmila Balabanova)In these haikus, figurative device such as metaphors have been used to present an insight of the world. Through this technique, multiple senses are used to gather sensory information.Example #4: Thirds (By Jeffrey Winke)Song birdsat the train yard's edgetwo cars couplingPersonification is also a definite trait of haiku poetry. This is to assign a human quality or qualities to nonhuman things, though this is less prevalent in haiku as compared to metaphors. In this poem, personification is very well done, hence allowing the poem to speak for itself.Example #5: To a Leg of Heron (By Basho)To a leg of a heronAdding a long shankOf a pheasant.The theme of this poem is to laugh at ones self. This is a perfect example of haiku poetry, as it is perfectly following the pattern of syllable counts. It is also giving an amusing and ironic touch, since reality is the major aspect of this form of poetry.Example #6: Selected Haiku (By Nick Virgilio)Lily:out of the water...out of itselfBassPicking bugsoff the moonNick Virgilio is an American poet who is a great supporter of Japanese haiku. He has written 5-7-5 syllable-style poems when translated in Japanese. These examples of haiku poems are natural, mystical, and refined.Function of HaikuHaikus are short poems written on topics and things that the readers can identify with easily. For example, seasons and animals are readily recognizable topics to readers. Generally, haiku is written for realistic and objective reasons; however, haikus are also written for children. Sometimes it presents two juxtaposed ideas to express meanings through internal comparison.

Cumulative Sentence

A cumulative sentence is known as a "loose sentence," that starts with an independent clause or main clause, which is simple and straight, provides main idea, and then adds subordinate elements or modifiers. It adds subordinate or modifying elements after the subject and the predicate. Writers use these types of sentences when they want to put forth the main idea first, and provide details to elucidate the idea further thereafter. They use these details in the form of dependent or subordinate phrases or clauses. These types of sentences work better in various forms of writing, specifically in explaining theories, by giving the main idea at the beginning, and then adding more information to build up the idea further. For instance, in the sentence, "Llanblethian hangs pleasantly, with its white cottages, and orchard and other trees..." (The Life of John Sterling, by Thomas Carlyle), the main clause is short, independent, and straightforward, while the subordinate elements clarify the idea further.Examples of Cumulative Sentence in LiteratureExample #1: More Die of Heartbreak (by Saul Bellow)"The radiators put out lots of heat, too much, in fact, and old-fashioned sounds and smells came with it, exhalations of the matter that composes our own mortality, and reminiscent of the intimate gases we all diffuse."In these lines, the main idea is simply the heat of radiators. After that, comes additional information, telling how dangerous the smell of these radiators could be for the humans.Example #2: Some Dreamers of the Golden Dream (by Joan Didion)"The San Bernardino Valley lies only an hour east of Los Angeles by the San Bernardino Freeway but is in certain ways an alien place: not the coastal California of the subtropical twilights and the soft westerlies off the Pacific but a harsher California, haunted by the Mojave just beyond the mountains, devastated by the hot dry Santa Ana wind that comes down through the passes at 100 miles an hour and whines through the eucalyptus windbreaks and works on the nerves."In this example, the main clause is independent, setting a scene for this essay, and describing the location of San Bernardino Valley. The modifying elements further enhance this description.Example #3: Life and Times of Chaucer (by John Gardner) "The unwieldy provision carts, draught horses, and heavily armed knights kept the advance down to nine miles a day, the huge horde moving in three parallel columns, cutting broad highways of litter and devastation through an already abandoned countryside, many of the adventurers now traveling on foot, having sold their horses for bread or having slaughtered them for meat."This is a perfect description of a cumulative sentence. The main clause is about carts, and then there are further details that explain how carts move down the road.Example #4: Gentlemen of the Road: A Tale of Adventure (by Michael Chabon)"He wept silently, after the custom of shamed and angry men, so that when the pursuit party came tumbling, pounding, scrabbling down the trail, past the fold in which he and Hillel stood concealed, he could hear the creak and rattle of their leather armor with its scales of horn; and when the Arsiyah returned, just before daybreak, at the very hour when all of creation seemed to fall silent as if fighting off tears, Zelikman could hear the rumbling of the men's bellies and the grit in their eyelids and the hollowness of failure sounding in their chests."This is another very good example of cumulative sentence. The main clause is very short and straight, telling someone has wept; thereafter, the author has given a detailed description of why someone, mentioned in the main clause, wept silently.Function of Cumulative Sentence Cumulative sentences are easier to understand, straightforward, and simple. The additional details in these sentences become relatively important, as they elucidate the main idea, given in a few words at the beginning. They are useful when the goal of a writer is clarity rather than suspense. Cumulative sentences give an informal, conversational, and relaxed feeling to a work of art.Besides, one must be judicious while explaining a main clause through subordinate and modifying phrases or clauses. At times, readers might not read full details in the entire sentence, as they have already read the main idea. Moreover, if a sentence becomes too long, they might lose interest, or forget the main idea at the end of a sentence.

Static Character

A static character is one that does not undergo inner changes, or undergoes a little change. It is a character that does not develop or grow, such as Sherlock Holmes and James Bond. In fact, this character does not develop the inner understanding to know how his environment is affecting him, or he does not understand that his actions have positive or negative impacts on others. The personality of this character remains the same at the end of the story as it appeared in the beginning. All his actions stay true and unchanged to his personality in-between the scenes.Difference Between Static and Flat CharactersStatic characters should not be confused or mixed up with flat, one-dimensional characters. Though neither changes as the story progresses, if a character remains unchanged, it does not mean that he is one-dimensional like a flat character. A static character can be perfectly interesting, like Sherlock Holmes, who is completely ingenious, eccentric, and sometimes jerky. He never changes, but the audience still loves him. Thus, a static character could be the protagonist too, and a flat character, on the other hand, only plays a side role in the story.Examples of Static Characters in Literature Example #1: Mr. Collins, Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen)The first example of a static character is Mr. Collins from Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. He plays a vital role in the novel by making efforts to get Darcy and Elizabeth together, and contributes comedy to the story; however, his character does not change. Thus, he is a perfect example of a static character.Example #2: Scar, The Lion King (by Don Ferguson)Scar is another excellent example of a static character. Scar is a sly and clever brother of the Lion King. This cunning character plots to kill Simba and his father. As the film goes on, we notice that Scar does not go through any changes, keeping his personality traits until the end. By the end of the story, he does not survive and dies due to his wicked deeds.Example #3: Draco, Harry Potter (by J. K. Rowling) Draco Malfoy is another good example of a static character. Although he gets many opportunities to grow and transform for the better, he prefers not to change. He also dimly senses that Lord Voldemort and the Death Eaters are evil, even though he continues to believe that only purebloods are worthy, and "Mudbloods" and "Muggles" are to be disdained.Example #4: Loisel, The Necklace (by Guy de Maupassant)In his short story, The Necklace, Guy de Maupassant introduces M. Loisel as a static character that does not care much to develop himself. He basically appreciates little things in life, seems happy with his life, and plays as a foil to his perpetually dissatisfied wife. He exists because his wife needs an escort, as she cannot attend the balls by herself. Also, Mathilde could not find any way to pay back the diamond necklace herself. Therefore, all she does to help him pay for necklace is to save money in every possible way by doing all laundry work and other household labor.Example #5: Atticus Finch, To Kill a Mockingbird (by Harper Lee)Atticus Finch is another good example of a static character in the novel, To Kill a Mocking Bird. Though his attitude about his father changes, he shows the same fortitude in the courtroom, as he explains that he shot the dog earlier in the story. Finch exercises the same principle of seeing things from other people's perspectives throughout the narrative. For instance, in the beginning, he gives a warning to the children to give respect to Boo's privacy and eccentric ways. Then, towards the end, he again recognizes the value of giving respect to Boo's privacy by agreeing with judgment of Heck Tate regarding Bob Ewell's death.Function of a Static CharacterThe function of the static character is not less than the hero with whom he is often found at every critical juncture in the narrative. It happens that, whenever the protagonist is in some quandary, the static character is there to help him out. It is because the main character or the protagonist cannot get there on his own. He needs other characters to serve some purpose to add to the plot or help outright. This is the static character who helps the protagonist and also serves as a foil to a character. Moreover, the foil helps reveal the differences between the two characters.

Asyndeton

Asyndeton is derived from the Greek word asyndeton, which means "unconnected." It is a stylistic device used in literature and poetry to intentionally eliminate conjunctions between the phrases, and in the sentence, yet maintain grammatical accuracy. This literary tool helps in reducing the indirect meaning of the phrase, and presents it in a concise form. It was first used in Greek and Latin literature. Types of AsyndetonAsyndeton examples may be classified into two types:Used between words and phrases within a sentenceFor example:"Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoils, Shrunk to this little measure?"(Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 1, by William Shakespeare)Used between sentences or clausesFor example:"Without looking, without making a sound, without talking"(Oedipus at Colonus, by Sophecles)Difference Between Syndeton and Asyndeton Syndeton and asyndeton are opposite to one another. Syndeton includes the addition of multiple conjunctions, such as in this example: "He eats and sleeps and drinks." On the other hand, asyndeton is the elimination, or leaving out, of conjunctions, such as in this example: "He eats, sleeps, drinks."Each creates a completely different effect. Syndeton slows down the rhythm of speech, and makes it moderate, whereas asyndeton speeds up the rhythm of the speech.Examples of Asyndeton in LiteratureExample #1: Othello (By William Shakespeare)IAGO"Call up her father.Rouse him. Make after him, Poison his delight,Proclaim him in the streets. Incense her kinsmen,And, though he in a fertile climate dwell..."In this excerpt, Shakespeare has eliminated conjunctions deliberately. There is a shortage of the conjunctions and, for, or, and but, which are required to join the sentences. Due to this, the words have been emphasized, and feelings of anger and jealousy are articulated explicitly.Example #2: The Scholar-Gipsy (By Matthew Arnold)"Go, shepherd, and untie the wattled cotes!No longer leave thy wistful flock unfed,Nor let thy bawling fellows rack their throats,Nor the cropp'd herbage shoot another head...Thou hast not lived, why should'st thou perish, so?Thou hadst one aim, one business, one desire;Else wert thou long since numbered with the dead..."This is a good example of asyndeton. The conjunctions are missing in the sentences, such as the second and sixth lines are not connected with adjoining words. However, it produces speed in the poem.Example #3: The Winter's Tale (By William Shakespeare) "Is whispering nothing?Is leaning cheek to cheek? is meeting noses?Kissing with inside lip? stopping the careerOf laughter with a sigh? (a note infallibleOf breaking honesty!) horsing foot on foot? "In this excerpt, we can observe both types of asyndeton. The first type (between the words) such as "from" is removed between the words "leaning" and "cheek" and similarly the second type (between the sentences) with the sentences not being joined by conjunctions.Example #4: Rhetoric (By Aristotle)"This is the villain among you who deceived you, who cheated you, who meant to betray you completely..."The word "and" is not featured in the given lines, which could have functioned as a conjunction here. Aristotle believed that asyndeton could be effective if used in the ending of the texts. Here he himself employed this device.Example #5: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce)"Consciousness of place came ebbing back to him slowly over a vast tract of time unlit, unfelt, unlived..."Joyce has also used this device, omitting the conjunctions in order to give rhythm and pace to the text. Here, we can see the elimination of conjunctions, which could have joined the words unlit, unfelt, and unlived. This creates are creating a frantic and hurried effect.Function of AsyndetonAsyndeton helps in speeding up the rhythm of words. Mostly this technique is employed in speech but can be used in written works too. It helps in attracting readers to collaborate with the writers, since it suggests that words, phrases, and sentences are incomplete, and the readers would have to do some work to deduce meanings. This version creates immediate impact, and the readers are attuned to what the author is trying to convey.Asyndeton is often applied intentionally in order to give a unique emphasis to the text, thereby drawing the attention of readers towards a particular idea the author wants to convey.

Fiction

Etymologically, the word fiction has been derived from Latin word "fictus," which means "to form." However, in literature, Merriam Webster defines it as, "literature in the form of prose, especially novels, that describes imaginary events and people." In fact, it is one of the two branches of literature, the other being non-fiction. This particular branch of literature consists of stories, novels, and dramas based on made-up and fabricated stories and characters. Fiction contains certain symbolic and thematic features known as "literary merits." In other words, fiction narrates a story, which aims at something bigger than merely a story. In this attempt, it comments on something significant related to social, political, or human related issues.Fiction may be based on stories of actual historical events. Although fictitious characters are presented in a fictitious setting in stories and novels, they may have some resemblance to real life events and characters. Writers alter their characters very skillfully when they take them from actual life.Examples of Fiction in LiteratureExample #1: Alice in Wonderland (By Lewis Carrol)Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll is a good example of fiction. The story narrates various adventures of the main character, Alice, in a fictitious land full of incredible creatures and events. Alice has to go through certain magical experiences in the wonderland. According to the story, one day, while reading book, Alice grows bored, and notices a white rabbit. She follows the rabbit when it goes into a hole in the ground.When peeping through the hole, Alice loses her balance and falls in. She floats down slowly into the hole, and observes everything around her. Then Alice enters Wonderland, where she witnesses a number of weird things. This entire magical tale is fabricated and imaginary, which makes it a good fiction to enjoy.Example #2: Pride and Prejudice (by Jane Austen)Another ample example to portray fiction is, Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. It is one of the most famous English novels. Unlike the previous example, this story is set in a real-life-like setting. All characters are humans, and no magical or strange events take place in this novel. All of the characters, and the entire story is a made-up narrative, each element the product of Jane Austen's imagination. She not only presents the issues of the contemporary life faced by middle class families, but also daily preoccupations of the common people. The novel presents a good fiction of actual life of nineteenth century.Example #3: Hamlet (by William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare's Hamlet is another apt example of fiction. The story of the play moves around the main character, Prince Hamlet. He is informed by the Ghost of his father that his uncle murdered his father, King Hamlet, and married his wife and Hamlet's mother, Queen Gertrude. The Ghost elicits a promise from Hamlet that he will avenge his murder by killing the murderer. This becomes Hamlet's dilemma. He vows to kill his uncle, but delays it on one pretext or another. Overall, the story is all about the intrigues and plots of the royal castle of Elsinore in Denmark. The story may have some connection with the real life events and characters, yet it is completely a fabricated story created by Shakespeare to entertain the Elizabeth audience of that time.Function of Fiction The function of fiction is to entertain, educate, and inspire the readers and the audience. Literature in general, and fiction in particular, is capable enough to sweep our emotions. Therefore, fiction gives the audience an experience beyond their daily lives. It provides them an insight into the life of the characters, their manners, vicissitudes, and events related to them. It also is used to point out the flaws and drawbacks of a society, race, and nation in a manner that it does not touch the boundary of stricture or criticism. Rather, fiction points out drawbacks, and then suggests solutions for the individuals and the nations alike. To sum up, fiction can also provide a vent to our pent-up emotions such as hatred, anger and dislike but in a very light manner without pointing out specific individuals or groups.

Motivation

In literature, "motivation" is defined as a reason behind a character's specific action or behavior. This type of behavior is characterized by the character's own consent and willingness to do something. There are two types of motivation: one is intrinsic, while the other one is extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is linked to personal pleasure, enjoyment and interest, while extrinsic motivation is linked to numerous other possibilities. Extrinsic motivation comes from some physical reward such as money, power, or lust. Intrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is inspired by some internal reward such as knowledge, pride, or spiritual or emotional peace or wellbeing, etc.Characters have some motivation for every action, as do people in real life. Therefore, the implicit or explicit reference to a motivation of a character makes the piece of literature seem closer to life and reality.Examples of Motivation in LiteratureExample #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)All actions that Hamlet commits in the play are the result of his motivation, such as revenge, justification, and integrity of his character. Throughout the play, revenge remains a constant motivation for Hamlet. He is extremely grieved over his father's death. His sorrow and grief are aggravated when the Ghost of his father tells him that the murderer has not only taken the throne, but has taken his mother as his bride.This becomes a motivation for Hamlet to justify his actions and exact revenge for "murder most foul," in the words of the Ghost. This motivation is further escalated when he sees his mother married to his uncle, the murderer. In fact, Hamlet finds an opportunity to kill his uncle, but he does not, as King Claudius was praying at the time. Hamlet does not want to send the murderer's soul to heaven. This motivation stops him from taking action.Example #2: Doctor Faustus (by Christopher Marlow)In his introductory soliloquy, Dr. Faustus reveals his motivation very clearly. The chorus already confirms whatever he states in the soliloquy. The chorus informs the audiences of the play that Faustus received his academic degree of doctorate in theology (religion). He earned a doctoral degree only to become "overinflated and conceited" for his own satisfaction. His self-centered thinking brings up his moral and spiritual downfall. He desires to know more and more even something, which is beyond his capabilities. His motivation is pride in himself, which ultimately destroys him.Example #3: Lady Macbeth from "Macbeth" (by William Shakespeare) According to many literary critics about Shakespeare's characters, the most evil of all his female characters is Lady Macbeth, who happens to have the worst motivation behind her actions. She is highly cunning, skillfully manipulative, and much more ambitious than her husband, Macbeth. When she receives a letter from her husband revealing the prophecy of the witches that foretells that Macbeth will be the future king, she at once begins to plan the murder of Duncan.Then, when Macbeth withdraws from taking action, she motivates and urges him to move forward. Therefore, not only are greed and lust her motivations, but she transfers these motivations to her husband, giving him reason to kill the king.Function of Motivation In literature, motivation is used to connect the behavior and actions of a character with the events of the story. Motivation serves as the logical explanation for what a character does, which is necessary for the readers and audiences to understand the causes of a character's actions. The core desires of characters lead the way to all actions in storytelling.Sometimes motivations of characters change with the development of the story. With a change in the motivation, the character changes too. For effective characterization, unified and dominant motivation is inevitable. Great characters have great motivations. These characters teach some good or bad moral lessons to the readers and the audiences. The readers and audiences get more interested in motivated characters and understand those motivations, which make or break societies.

Foil

In literature, a foil is a character that shows qualities that are in contrast with the qualities of another character. The objective is to highlight the traits of the other character. The term foil, though generally being applied to a contrasting character, may also be used for any comparison that is drawn to portray a difference between two things. What we observe in literature very often is that a foil is a secondary character who contrasts with the major character to enhance the importance of the major character. The etymology of the term foil testifies the aforementioned assertion as the word is taken from the practice of backing gems with foil (tool), so that they shine more brightly.Examples of Foil in LiteratureExample #1: Paradise Lost (By John Milton)Milton's Paradise Lost, Book I, is based on the comparison of two contrasting characters: God and Satan. Satan, in the entire work, appears as a foil to God. The negative traits of Satan and the positive traits of God are frequently compared, which consequently brings to the surface not only the contrast between the two characters, but also "justify the ways of God..." We reach a conclusion that it is only just for Satan to be expelled from the paradise because of his refusal to give in to the will of God.Example #2: Wuthering Heights (By Emily Bronte)In Wuthering Heights, Emily Bronte depicts two contrasting settings that are foils to each other. The entire action of the narrative takes place in two neighboring houses: Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange. While describing Wuthering Heights in chapter 12, the narrator says:"There was no moon, and everything beneath lay in misty darkness: not a light gleamed from any house, far or near all had been extinguished long ago: and those at Wuthering Heights were never visible..."The description of Thrushcross Grange, in contrast to the Wuthering Heights, creates a calm and peaceful atmosphere."Gimmerton chapel bells were still ringing; and the full, mellow flow of the beck in the valley came soothingly on the ear. It was a sweet substitute for the yet absent murmur of the summer foliage, which drowned that music about the Grange when the trees were in leaf."The foils in these settings also help in the development of the foils in the characters, as the people from Wuthering Heights are unsophisticated, and are foils to those from Thrushcross Grange, who have a refined disposition.Example #3: Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (By Robert Louis Stevenson) In his novel Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Robert Louis Stevenson explores the theme of doppelganger in which Hyde is not only an evil double of the honorable Dr. Jekyll, but also qualifies as his foil. Dr. Jekyll creates Hyde through a series of scientific experiments, in order to prove his statement:"Man is not truly one, but truly two."He means that the human soul is a mixture of evil and good. In other words, every man's foil exists in himself. Hyde is the manifestation of the evil that existed in otherwise honorable Dr. Jekyll. Being a respectable Victorian gentleman, Jekyll can never fulfill his evil desires. Therefore, he separates his "evil-self," giving him a separate identity, and thus invents his own foil.Example #4: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare)Foil examples are also found in plays. We notice in William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar a twofold foil. Cassius is a foil to Brutus, and Brutus is a foil to Antony. Both Cassius and Brutus conspire to kill Caesar, but Cassius is more prone to treachery than Brutus is, and thus easily gives in to his evil ambition.Brutus, on the other hand, hesitates to join the plot without careful analysis of the whole scenario. Cassius even goes to the extent that he does not shy away from writing phony letters to convince Brutus to join the plot. Brutus, in contrast, is bent on relying on his own reason, and his awareness of his dignified obligations as a Roman, to do the inevitable. Moreover, Brutus is a foil to Antony because Brutus's honesty and simplicity are in clear contrast to Antony's qualities of deception and over-ambition.Function of Foil In fiction, a foil is important in the development of the story's characters. The comparison of the contrasting traits of the characters helps the readers to not only understand their personalities, but also to comprehend the importance of their roles in a work of literature.

Limerick

Limerick is a comic verse, containing five anapestic (unstressed/unstressed/stressed) lines, in which the first, second, and fifth lines are longer, rhyme together, and follow three metrical feet. The third and fourth lines rhyme together, are shorter, and follow two metrical feet. However, sometimes it may vary, and amphibrachic (unstressed/stressed/unstressed) form can replace anapestic. In fact, it is a bawdy, humorous, or nonsensical verse written in the form of five anapests, with an aabba rhyme scheme. Since it has a special structure and format, it is called fixed or closed form of poetry. Limerick and VillanelleThough both of these are types of poem having fixed structures, both are different in their forms. Villanelle consists of 19 lines with refraining rhyming sounds appearing in the first and the third lines, while the final quatrain has a closing couplet. A limerick has five lines, having anapestic form with the first, second, and fifth lines rhyming together, but the third and fourth lines are different and rhyme together.Examples of limerick in Literature We can find the use of limericks in eighteenth century verse. They are associated with Edward Lear, who first published this verse form in his book A Book of Nonsense in the year 1846. Later, this form became popular, and many poets, including Alfred Lord Tennyson, Shakespeare, Rudyard Kipling, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Ogden Nash, H. G. Wells, W. H. Auden, T. S. Eliot, James Joyce, and Lewis Carroll, tried their hands in this form of poetry. Here we have a few examples of limerick from literature:Example #1: To Miss Vera Beringer (By Lewis Carroll)"There was a young lady of station'I love man' was her sole exclamation;But when men cried: 'You flatter,'She replied, 'Oh! no matterIsle of Man is the true explanation.'"This limerick contains five lines with a rhyme scheme of aabba. Here we can notice the first, second, and fifth lines rhyme together, with three feet; whereas the third and fourth lines contain two feet and rhyme together.Example #2: There was an Old Man with a Beard (By Edward Lear)"There was an Old Man with a beard,Who said, 'It is just as I feared!Two Owls and a Hen,Four Larks and a Wren,Have all built their nests in my beard!"Edward Lear was considered to be the father of limericks. This is one of the very good examples of limerick poems, following its typical format with the first, second, and fifth lines rhyming together, and longer in length; while the remaining two are shorter, and give a faster read. Lear has referred to this form as nonsense.Example #3: There was a small boy of Quebec (By Rudyard Kipling) "There was a small boy of QuebecWho was buried in snow to his neckWhen they said, 'Are you friz?'He replied, 'Yes, I is —But we don't call this cold in Quebec.'"Notice Kipling has penned a good limerick with irrelevant zaniness and weirdness. The first four lines look funny, while the final line creates a curious and special mood in this poem.Example #4: Othello (By William Shakespeare)"And let me the canakin clink, clink;And let me the canakin clinkA soldier's a man;A life's but a span;Why, then, let a soldier drink."It is quite interesting that the earliest written limericks were linked with drinking. We can guess that people would have drinks and sang bawdy, funny songs or poems. Similarly, William Shakespeare has employed this form in a drinking song of Stephano to create nonsensical and humorous effects.Example #5: A Man Hired by John Smith & Co (By Mark Twain)"A man hired by John Smith and Co.Loudly declared that he'd tho.Men that he sawDumping dirt near his doorThe drivers, therefore, didn't do."As we know, Mark Twain is also popular for writing limericks. Here, he has used a funny and whimsical limerick poem, with a concluding punch line.Function of LimerickPoets use limericks as literary or poetic forms to convey and create funny and humorous images. The purpose of using this form is to replace everyday expression with unusual alternative to express emotion and a particular mood by adding eccentricity and weirdness. We can find its usage in literature to describe humor or light subject matter, as the first four lines create a joke, and it ends on a punch line. It also is used frequently in nursery rhymes to make kids love reading.

Procatalepsis

Procatalepsis is a figure of speech that is also known as "prebuttal," or a "prolepsis," in which the speaker or writer gives response to the objection of an opponent in his speech by repeating his objection. It could also be that he responds to his own objection, in order to strengthen his argument, by using counterarguments. Once the speakers bring attention to a possible rebuttal, they immediately refute or discredit it, for the fear that people may get confused.Examples of Procatalepsis in LiteratureExample #1: The Captives (by Hugh Walpole)" 'I know what you're going to say' ... 'That if they look at it properly they'll see that it wasn't our fault. But will they look at it properly? Of course they won't. You know what cats they are ...' "This example is a perfect description of procatalepsis. First, the speaker says that, if the reader looks at the matter carefully, he will realize and know the truth. Then he quickly objects to his own argument and asks a question instead.Example #2: Apology (by Plato)"Someone will say: 'Yes, Socrates, but cannot you hold your tongue, and then you may go into a foreign city, and no one will interfere with you?' Now I have great difficulty in making you understand my answer to this ... and that the life which is unexamined is not worth living - that you are still less likely to believe. And yet what I say is true, although a thing of which it is hard for me to persuade you."In this example, the speaker is persuading the listeners. He knows that the other person would not believe him, and that he is unable to convince him despite the fact that he is telling the truth. Thus, the speaker is objecting to his own argument to strengthen it.Example #3: The Scorpio Illusion (by Robert Ludlum) " 'He knows every harbor, every cove and inlet throughout the chain; he has to.'" 'Those are fine credentials, Geoffrey, but hardly the sort —'" 'Please,' interrupted Cooke. 'I haven't finished. To anticipate your objection, he's a retired officer of US Naval Intelligence. He's relatively young, early to mid-forties, I'd say, and I've no real knowledge of why he left the service, but I gather the circumstances weren't very pleasant. Still, he could be an asset on this assignment.' "In this excerpt, the speaker uses procatalepsis by describing the efforts and expertise of the U.S. naval officer. First, he raises a question about why he left his job, then immediately objects to his own argument, responding that, due to unpleasant circumstances, he had left the job.Example #4: A Modest Proposal (by Jonathan Swift)"I can think of no one objection that will possibly be raised against this proposal, unless it should be urged that the number of people will be thereby much lessened in the kingdom. This I freely own, and it was indeed the principal design in offering it to the world."Here, Swift brings an argument that he can't think of a single objection to his proposal; then he gives a quick argument that an objection might be raised about the decrease in the kingdom's population.Example #5: Amores 1.3 (by Ovid)"Accept (me), one who knows [how] to love you with spotless faith.Nor is my field renewed by countless plows,Act on my side, and Love, who gives me to youAnd loyalty [which] will yield to no-one, morals without fault ...and that I die with you grieving (for me).Offer yourself to me as worthy material for poems: ..."In this poem, Ovid is using procatalepsis to persuade Corinna that he loves her more than anyone; and though he is not rich, and does not have too much money, social status, or possessions, he knows that his poetry could make his beloved immortal.Function This rhetorical device, procatalepsis, allows a writer to remain in control of a discourse by using counterargument. It is also helpful to writers or speakers, if they do not have a complete answer to an objection, which they attain by remaining honest about reality that their arguments have problems.This is how they show their audience that they are grounded in the reality. Since it is a very effective tactic in arguments, its benefits are twofold: the speaker replies successfully to the objection of the audience or opposing arguments, and also builds trust with his audience. Its usage is common in literary writings, advertisements, specifically in the political arena, where it serves as a playground.

Romanticism

Romanticism is one of the recurring themes that are linked to either imagination, idealism, inspiration, intuition, or individualism. The theme often criticizes the past, stresses upon sensibility, isolation of the writer and pays homage to nature. Preceded by Enlightenment, Romanticism brought not only fresh poetry but also great novels in English Literature. Started from England and spread throughout Europe including the United States, the Romantic movement includes famous writers such as William Wordsworth, Coleridge, Keats, Lord Byron, Shelley, Chatterton, and Hawthorne. Etymologically, romantic has been modified from the French word romaunt that means a tale of chivalry. After two German writers Schlegel brothers used this word for poetry, it transformed into a movement like an epidemic and spread throughout Europe.Examples of Romanticism in LiteratureExample #1To Autumn by John Keats"Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness,Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun;Conspiring with him how to load and blessWith fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run;To bend with apples the moss'd cottage-trees,And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core;To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shellsWith a sweet kernel; to set budding more,And still more, later flowers for the bees,Until they think warm days will never cease,For summer has o'er-brimm'd their clammy cells."This is one of the best romantic poems of its time. Keats composed this phenomenal romantic poem during one of his evenings in Winchester. It describes the autumn and its features through imagination, intuition, and idealism. Keats describes three stages of autumn as it progresses from early autumn to mid-autumn and the onset of winter and compares it to the cycle of life in general.Example #2To a Skylark by Percy Bysshe Shelley"We look before and after,And pine for what is not:Our sincerest laughterWith some pain is fraught;Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought.Yet if we could scornHate, and pride, and fear;If we were things bornNot to shed a tear,I know not how thy joy we ever should come near."The above lines show a strong inclination to the expression of subjectivity or individuality of the poet in his poetry. Although Shelley is writing about the skylark, he expressed his personal feelings of sorrow in the poem and related them to the song of the bird. This romantic trait runs throughout the poem.Example #3 Frankenstein by Mary ShelleyFrankenstein is one of the best examples of romantic novels. It shows the idea of how supernatural works in an environment where the pursuit of knowledge and discovery of Victor Frankenstein overpowers him so much so that he forgets the moral aspects of life and creation. He rather becomes a godlike human being and creates a monster instead of a human. Moreover, the novel has also stressed upon feelings of love and romance. The monster's intense desire to have a mate points to the theme of romanticism.Example #4Daffodils by William Wordsworth"I wandered lonely as a cloudThat floats on high o'er vales and hills,When all at once I saw a crowd,A host, of golden daffodils;Beside the lake, beneath the trees,Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.Continuous as the stars that shineAnd twinkle on the milky way,They stretched in never-ending lineAlong the margin of a bay:Ten thousand saw I at a glance,Tossing their heads in sprightly dance."In this poem, Wordsworth has elaborated his personal feelings as he sees daffodils and everything else around him. He continues to describe the beauty of nature not only in the flowers but also trees, stars, and the milky way galaxy.Example #5The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge "It is an ancient Mariner,And he stoppeth one of three.'By thy long grey beard and glittering eye,Now wherefore stopp'st thou me?The Bridegroom's doors are opened wide,And I am next of kin;The guests are met, the feast is set:May'st hear the merry din.'He holds him with his skinny hand,'There was a ship,' quoth he.'Hold off! unhand me, grey-beard loon!'Eftsoons his hand dropt he."These three stanzas tell a mysterious tale which contains elements of surprise and dream-like situation. The entire poem has these romantic elements in the story of the ancient marine which has transformed it into a representative poem of the romantic movement.Romanticism Meaning and Function Romanticism, as a movement in literature, has also led the writers and poets to create masterpieces having romantic elements. Romanticism as theme celebrates freedom and breaking conventional rules. Romanticism is also considered an active power with functions to present our imagination.

Ballad

The word ballad is of French provenance. It is a type of poetry or verse which was basically used in dance songs in ancient France. Later on, during the late 16th and 17th centuries, it spread over the majority of European nations. Owing to its popularity and emotional appeal, it remained a powerful tool for poets and lyricists to prepare music in the form of lyrical ballads, and earn a handsome income from it. The art of lyrical ballad, as well as ballad poetry, lost popularity during the latter half of the 19th century. However, it is still read and listened to with interest in most European countries, including the British Isles.Evolution of BalladTwo schools of thought, namely the communal school of thought, and the individualist school of thought, have dominated the world of ballad throughout its development. Communalists believe that the evolution of the ballad was a result of the joined and shared literary endeavors of many people. Individualists negate this approach to the extent that they consider the later development as a modification of the archetype.Most of the ballad examples in ancient times used to be passed from generation to generation through oral traditions. This is because there was no language in which to write them down.However, in the modern world, the preservation and transmission of such literary treasures has become easier. The availability of advanced technology and common languages has improved not only the documentation, but the accessibility of these resources for people in every part of the world.Distinguishing Features of Ballads Ballads, no matter which category they fall into, mostly rely on simple and easy-to-understand language, or dialect from its origin. Stories about hardships, tragedies, love, and romance are standard ingredients of the ballad. This is irrespective of geographical origins.Another conspicuous element of any ballad is the recurrence of certain lines at regular intervals. Ballads can also be in interrogative form, with appropriate answers to every question asked. Ballads seldom offer a direct message about a certain event, character, or situation. It is left to the audience to deduce the moral of the story from the whole narration.Categories of BalladFollowing is a broad list of categories of ballad:Stall balladLyrical balladPopular balladBlue balladBush balladFusion ballad (pop and rock)Modern balladAll these categories are primarily meant to convey popular messages, stories, or historical events to audiences in the form of songs and poetry.Examples of BalladExample #1: Tam Lin (Unknown)Scottish traditional ballad" 'O I forbid you, maiden all,That wears gold in your hair,To come or go by CarterhaughFor young Tam Lin is there."Example #2: Rime of an Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Taylor Coleridge)Lyrical ballad"Day after day, day after dayWe stuck nor breathe, nor motion;As idle as a painted shipUpon a painted ocean."Example #3: Stagolee (By John Hurt) Blue ballad with roots in American folk music"Stagolee was a bad manThey go down in a coal mine one nightRobbed a coal mineThey's gambling down there"Example #4: Drover (By Elton John)Bush ballad"From the sunburnt plains of far off North AustraliaCame a fella born to ride the wide brown landOh he grew up running wilBut soon by all was styledAs the country's greatest-ever droving man"Example #5: The Ballad of Billy the Kid (By Billy Joel)Modern ballad"From a town known Wheeling, Wes VirginiaRode a boy with six gun in his handsAnd his daring life crimeMade him a legend in his timeEast and west of Rio Grande"Function of Ballad: Dramatic UsesBallads, as stage performances, enjoyed the status of being one of the main sources of entertainment in ancient times. Legends and historical events were narrated in the form of a ballads, which would comprise song and dance.Ballad was a perfect substitute for our current day technology-based entertainment, albeit with more emotional appeal. In the 18th century, the ballad-based stage entertainment came to be known as "ballad opera." According to ballad aficionados, the first formal ballad opera was staged in the first half of the 18th century, with the theme of "The Beggar's Opera."

Anecdote

Anecdote is defined as a short and interesting story, or an amusing event, often proposed to support or demonstrate some point, and to make the audience laugh. Anecdotes can include an extensive range of tales and stories. In fact, it is a short description or an account of any event that makes the readers laugh or brood over the topic presented for the purpose. Types of AnecdoteThere are several types of anecdotes. Amusing anecdotes are often used in literature, or at such events as family reunions, wedding receptions, and other get-togethers. Teachers tell anecdotes to their students in classrooms about eminent people and celebrities. Writers and poets use them in their literary works.Examples of Anecdote in Literature Example #1: The Crucible (By Arthur Miller)Parris: "(It is very hard to say): Aye, a dress. And I thought - someone naked running through the trees!"Abigail: (In terror) "No one was naked! You mistake yourself, uncle!"Parris: (With anger) "I saw it! (Her moves from her, then, resolved.) Now tell me true, Abigail. And I pray you feel the weight of truth upon you, for now my ministry's at stake, my ministry and perhaps your cousin's life. Whatever abomination you have done, give me all of it now, for I dare not be taken unaware when I go before them down there."Abigail: "There is nothin' more. I swear it, uncle."Parris: (Studies her, then nods, half convinced) "Abigail, I have fought here three long years to bend there stiff-necked people to me, and now, just now when some good respect is rising for me in the parish, you compromise my very character. I have given you a home, child, I have put clothes upon your back - now give me upright answer. Your name in the town - it is entirely white, is it not?"Abigail: (With an edge of resentment) "Why, I am sure it is, sir. There is no blush about my name."Parris: (To the point) "Abigail is there any other cause that you have told me, for you being discharged from Goody Proctor's service? I have heard it said, and I tell you as I heard it, that she comes so rarely to church this year for she will not sit so close to something soiled. What signified that remark?"Abigail: "She hates me, uncle; she must, for I would not be her slave. It's a bitter woman, a lying; cold, sniveling, woman, and I will not work for such a woman!"Parris: "She may be. And yet it has troubled me that you are now seven month out of their house, and in all this time no other family has ever called for your service."Abigail: "They want slaves, not such as me. Let them send to Barbados for that. I will not black my face for any of them! (With ill-concealed resentment at him.) Do you begrudge my bed, uncle?"Parris: "No - no."Abigail: (in a temper) "My name is good in the village! I will not have it said my name is soiled! Goody Proctor is a gossiping liar!"Here in this literary text, Reverend Parris finds her niece Abigail Williams chanting and dancing in the woods, along with the native village girls. He suspects them of magic and witchcraft. However, she does not accept any of the accusations of Parris and starts narrating whimsical stories to justify her actions. Abigail makes an account that Goody Proctor is a liar. The stories of Abigail are perfect examples of anecdotes.Example #2: Death in the Arctic (By Robert W. Service)is that? Bells, dogs again! Is it a dream? I sob and cry. See! The door opens, fur-clad men Rush to my rescue; frail am I; Feeble and dying, dazed and glad. There is the pistol where it dropped. "Boys, it was hard - but I'm not mad ... Look at the clock - it stopped, it stopped. Carry me out. The heavens smile. See! There's an arch of gold above. Now, let me rest a little while - Looking to God and Love ... and Love..."In this poem, the speaker is freezing slowly in the Arctic. He recollects the memories of his life and tells the whole story to the readers, but sees flashes of his life before he dies. In fact, he is using anecdotes to tell his life story.Function of AnecdoteAnecdotes and humorous pieces are not only jokes, but exquisite literary devices as well. Their primary purpose is to stir up laughter, to disclose a truth in a general way, or to describe a feature of a character in such a way that it becomes humorous, and at the same time gives us a better understanding of the character.Anecdotes may also serve as cautions. Writers tell their readers about the possibilities of future happenings, in case they do not follow particular processes and techniques.

Antanaclasis

Antanaclasis is a rhetorical device in which a phrase or word is repeatedly used, though the meaning of the word changes in each case. It is the repetition of a similar word in a sentence with different meanings, or a word is repeated in two or more different senses. Many of Shakespeare's literary pieces contain examples of antanaclasis. Like in these lines, "Put out the light, then put out the light..." (Othello). The first meaning is that Othello would extinguish the candle, and in the second reference its meaning is that he would end Desdemona's life. Difference Between Epizeuxis and AntanaclasisThere is a slight difference between epizeuxis and antanaclasis, though both mean the repetition of words. In epizeuxis, the words or phrases are repeated in a succession in the same sentence or line. Such as in this passage, "Alone, alone, all all alone, /Alone on a wide, wide sea..."(The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, by Samuel Coleridge).The words or phrases are repeated in a sentence or passage with different meanings. Such as, "I will dissemble myself in't; and I would I were the first that ever dissembled in such a gown." (Twelfth Night, by William Shakespeare). In this case, the first meaning of dissemble is disguised, and the second meaning is to act hypocritically.Examples of Antanaclasis in Literature Example #1: Twelfth Night (By William Shakespeare)Viola: "Save thee, friend, and thy music! Dost thou live by thy tabour?"Clown: "No, sir, I live by the church."Viola: "Art thou a churchman?"Clown: "No such matter, sir: I do live by the church; for I do live at my house, and my house doth stand by the church."In this example, the word "live" is repeatedly used. Viola is Cesario in disguise, and conversing with Feste (Fool). In the first sentence, it means that he makes his living by playing the drum, and in the later lines it means he lives near the church.Example #2: Walter Savage Landor (By Walter Savage Landor)"Death, tho I see him not, is nearAnd grudges me my eightieth year.Now I would give him all these lastFor one that fifty have run past.Ah! He strikes all things, all alike,But bargains: those he will not strike..."Landor has used, in the final two lines of the poem, the word "strike," with contrasting meanings. In the first instance, it means killing everyone and everything, while in the second reference it means the opposite.Example #3: Stopping By Woods on Snowy Evening (By Robert Frost) "The woods are lovely, dark, and deep,But I have promises to keep,And miles to go before I sleep,And miles to go before I sleep."Here, the poet uses antanaclasis in the last two lines of the poem. The first use of the word "sleep" means nocturnal rest, and in the last line it has the meaning of death. This device is helping to draw the readers' attention.Example #4: Henry V (By William Shakespeare)KingHenry:"And tell the pleasant prince this mock of hisHath turned his balls to gun-stones, and his soulShall stand sore chargèd for the wasteful vengeanceThat shall fly with them; for many a thousand widowsShall this his mock mock out of their dear husbands,Mock mothers from their sons, mock castles down,And some are yet ungotten and unbornThat shall have cause to curse the Dauphin's scorn..."Henry V, as one can see in the above excerpt, is one of Shakespeare's works which contains examples of antanaclasis. The word "mock," repeatedly used in this excerpt, has two meanings - "to cheat," and "to taunt."Function of AntanaclasisAntanaclasis helps in giving an exciting contrast with different meanings of the same word. It enhances the dramatic and persuasive impact of a piece of writing or speech. Antanaclasis creates comic effect when used in the form of irony and pun. Apart from that, it makes the literary text memorable due to repetition. It is used as a rhetorical device in poetry, prose, and political speeches. Political leaders make use of this technique in order to persuade and draw the attention of their audiences.

Antecedent

Antecedent is an earlier clause, phrase, or word to which a pronoun, noun, or another word refers. Broadly speaking, antecedent is a literary device in which a word or pronoun in a line or sentence refers to an earlier word. For instance, "While giving treats to children or friends offer them whatever they like." In this line, children and friends are antecedents, while they is a pronoun that refers to friends and children. It is a typical linguistic term and originates from grammar. Often antecedents and their respective pronouns agree in number, which means if an antecedent is singular, the pronoun that replaces it will also be singular. However, sometimes writers might not follow this rule, and we see singular antecedents are replaced with plural pronouns. Likewise, antecedents and their following pronouns have the same gender.Difference Between Antecedent and PostcedentThese terms are opposite to one another, as antecedent refers to in front of or before. It is an expression that gives meaning to a proform (a noun, pronoun, pro-adverb or pro-verb). Hence, proforms follow their respective antecedents such as "Elizabeth says, she likes coffee." Sometimes these proforms or pronouns precede them that are called postcedents, meaning behind or after such as, "when it gets ready, I shall definitely get my cup of tea."Common Examples of Antecedent David plays football in the courtyard. All the children have gathered there.My uncle likes candies. He asks everyone to give him candies as gifts.When children are happy, they clap to express their pleasure.The leaves have turned yellow; even then they are on the tree.The bird ate the fish quickly, and immediately itA good story must have a quality about it; it must have characters, a setting, narration, and dialogues.Examples of Antecedent in LiteratureExample #1: Ode to Autumn (By John Keats)"And still more, later flowers for the bees,Until they think warm days will never cease,For Summer has o'er-brimmed their clammy cell."In the above lines, bees are used as antecedent, and the pronouns "they" and "their" refer to this noun used earlier. See that the antecedent and its pronouns are italicized. If we remove the pronouns, these lines will have an entirely different and confusing impression, and the meaning will change.Example #2: A Comedy of Errors (By William Shakespeare)"There's not a man I meet but doth salute meAs if I were their well-acquainted friendAnd every one doth call me by my name.Some tender money to me; some invite me ..."Here, Shakespeare uses pronouns of vague reference by employing a singular antecedent, "a man," with the plural pronoun "their." However, the noun everyone is singular, and both agree in their numbers. The speaker tries to explain he did not meet a single person, but everyone knew his name, and hence refers to everyone as "their."Example #3: A Poison Tree (By William Blake) "... I was angry with my foe:I told it not, my wrath did grow.And I watered it in fears,Night and morning with my tears;And I sunned it with smiles ..."This poem presents a very good example of antecedent, in which the speaker uses the noun "foe" as antecedent, and replaces it with the pronoun "it" in the very next line. Similarly, he again makes use of "wrath" as an antecedent, and replaces it with "it."Example #4: Othello (By William Shakespeare)"Me thinks the wind has spoke aloud at land,A fuller blast ne'er shook our battlementsIf it hath ruffianed so upon the seaWhat ribs of oak, when mountains melt on them ..."In this excerpt, the antecedent is "wind," and the pronoun "it" is its denotation, replacing it in the third line. Antecedent makes these lines clear and easy to understand for the readers.Function of AntecedentAntecedent is a very important and useful literary device, as it makes the sense of a sentence clear to the readers. By using references such as they, their, them, it, he, and she without any antecedent subject would become confusing. Hence, antecedent makes the composition words, grammar, and the expression of the writers clear and precise, as without it, a sentence remains vague and cannot convey exact meaning. It is a tricky concept, though a worthwhile rule to grasp, because it helps writers improve their writing style too.

Anthimeria

Anthimeria has originated from the Greek word anti-meros, which means "one part for another." It is a rhetorical device that uses a word in a new grammatical shape, often as a noun or a verb. Simply, it replaces one part of speech with another. For instance, Shakespeare converts a noun "peace" into verb in this line: "The thunder would not peace at my bidding" (King Lear). Using nouns as verbs has become such a common practice that now many nouns are often used as verbs. In grammar studies, anthimeria has another name, "functional shift," or "conversion." In fact, language is always fluid, and is in constant transformation. Therefore, use of a verb as a noun or vice versa is not a surprise for linguists.Use of Anthimeria in SongsExample #1: These Boots Are Made for Walking (by Nancy Sinatra)"Yeah, you keep lyin' when you oughta be truthin'And you keep losing when you oughta not betYou keep samin' when you oughta be a changin'Now, what's right is right but you ain't been right yet."This song by Nancy Sinatra shows two nouns used as verbs, which are "truthing" and "saming."Types of Anthimeria Depending upon its usage, anthimeria has two types:Temporary AnthimeriaThis type may be trendy or popular; however, it does not make its appearance permanent in language. For instance, these days a temporary anthimeria is "hashtagging;" since it has emerged recently, but it may not last long.Permanent Anthimeria This type has become a permanent part of language after its emergence. For instance, "texting" has become a permanent part of language. Another one is "typing."Examples of Anthimeria in LiteratureExample #1: Under the Greenwood Tree (by Thomas Hardy)"The parishioners about here," continued Mrs. Day, not looking at any living being, but snatching up the brown delf tea-things, "are the laziest, gossipest, poachest, jailest set of any ever I came among. And they'll talk about my teapot and tea-things next, I suppose!"Hardy was popular for his creativity, inventiveness, and coining completely weird and new words such as, "gossipest," "poaches," and "jailest" in this excerpt taken from Under the Greenwood Tree.Example #2: Letter to F. Scott Fitzgerald (by Thomas Wolfe)"Flaubert me no Flauberts. Bovary me no Bovarys. Zola me no Zolas. And exuberance me no exuberances. Leave this stuff for those who huckster in it and give me, I pray you, the benefits of your fine intelligence and your high creative faculties, all of which I so genuinely and profoundly admire."In these lines, the names of the writers are changed into plural forms, which we have never seen before. This is another good example of anthimeria.Example #3: In the Marvelous Dimension (by Kate Daniels)"Until then, I'd never likedpetunias, their heavy stems,the peculiar spittooning soundof their name. Now I loveda petunia for all it was worth—a purplish blue bloomwaving in a red clay pot outsidean office window."In this poem, Kate has changed the noun "spittoon" into a verb "spittooning," and changed the color purple into an adjective.Example #4: More Die of Heartbreak (by Saul Bellow)"I've often got the kid in my mind's eye. She's a dolichocephalic Trachtenberg, with her daddy's narrow face and Jesusy look."In this example, "Jesus" is transformed into a new form of adjective "Jesusy." It gives a complete new expression to a noun.Example #5: Emma (by Jane Austen)"Let me not suppose that she dares go about, Emma Woodhouse-ing me!"Austen has invented a verb "woodhouse-ing" from an existing noun "woodhouse," giving a new shape to an old noun.Function of AnthimeriaAnthimeria is very common in novels, short stories, and particularly in poetry, where such replacement evokes mild emotions of confusion. However, the proposed meaning is not difficult to recognize from the ways and methods of expression commonly used in literature. It happens in advertisements, because the culture of this world is constantly changing, language must also grow, improve, and develop. Anthimeria, in fact, provides writers a method to describe ideas in a unique way that makes the readers think. Sometimes, writers use a new word to create images and imagery. Besides this, it is a method through which we transform and change our language over time.

Anthropomorphism

Anthropomorphism is a literary device that can be defined as a technique in which a writer ascribes human traits, ambitions, emotions, or entire behaviors to animals, non-human beings, natural phenomena, or objects. Difference Between Anthropomorphism and PersonificationAnthropomorphism is also a t